—  OR  — 

PROFIT  AND 

A  SELF  TEACHER  IN 

5      Of 
EMBRACING    EVERY   VARIETY  Of 


*  AND  *  DRAWING 


j)    fetrjii)^  (silass.    V/elvef,  (diarjvets,  Jgaper1  arja  tt/c®a. 
THE   SECRET   OF  ALL 

TRANSPARENCIES,  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 
PASTEL^CRAYON  DRAWING,  TAXIDERMY,  Etc. 


CHICAGO: 

DONOHUE,  HENNEBERRY  &  CO, 

407-425  DEARBORN  STREET  i 

1890 


COPYRIGHT, 

1887. 
Amir  lean  Mutual 
Library  Association 


N  presenting  to  the  public  and  our  artistically  inclined 
people  our  "  Art  Manual "  we  should  do  so  with  some 
trepidation  had  we  not  the  assurance,  in  placing  before 
them  this  work,  that  it  would  instantly  win  its  way  into  their 
favor  by  its  merits.  Most  books  produced  by  the  press  of  the 
present  day  are  novels,  compilations,  scientific  and  theolog- 
ical ones,  meeting  as  they  do  only  certain  classes,  and  are 
subjects  which  have  been  constantly  before  the  people.  We 
present  you  a  "new  book"  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  We 
propose  entering  with  our  readers  into  the  beautiful  realms 
of  Art,  than  which  there  is  no  more  interesting  subject;  our 
object  being  its  promotion  and  dissemination.  We  want  to 
see  the  great  majority  of  our  refined,  educated,  but  needy 
women  embrace  it  as  a  source  of  profit  as  well  as  pleasure, 
many  of  whom  with  an  intellect  for  greater  things,  but  inca- 
pable of  muscular  labor  or  exposure,  can,  by  applying  them- 
selves energetically  to  this  occupation,  earn  a  good  livelihood 
and  famous  name,  and  assist  in  disseminating  its  beauties 
everywhere.  Many  homes  are  there  in  our  land, which  they  can 
ornament,  and  embellish  to  their  profit,  and  the  pleasure  of 
others.  Those  comfortably  situated  in  life,  whose  home 
decorations  they  prefer  to  be  the  product  of  their  own  hands, 


will  hail  our  "  Manual "  as  "a  friend  indeed."  To  the  child 
in  whom  is  observed  traits  of  genius  it  will  be  of  invaluable 
assistance  in  developing  those  traits.  Our  aim  is  to  combine 
in  this  work  all  the  different  methods  of  producing  portraits, 
landscapes,  painting  on  canvas,  wood,  china,  etc.,  etc.,  to 
furnish  to  all  lovers  of  the  useful  and  beautiful  in  art  a  true 
teacher, making  every  instruction  so  plain  and  comprehensive, 
that  a  child  can  grasp  the  meaning.  In  thus  combining  all 
these  arts  in  one  volume,  we  save  the  learner  the  expense  of 
purchasing  a  large  number  of  books  at  a  cost  which  effect- 
ually precludes  the  possibility  of  many  engaging  in  this 
profitable  and  pleasant  occupation.  Then,  to  those  whose 
tastes  are  artistically  inclined,  and  who  find  it  most  incon- 
venient to  obtain  instructions  in  all  the  branches  desired;  to 
those  in  whom  genius  lies  dormant  and  whom  necessity  com- 
pels to  earn  their  own  livelihood;  to  those  who  desire  to 
combine  pastime  with  pleasure,  and  to  those  who  have  the 
means,  tastes  and  desire  but  not  the  necessary  assistance  at 
hand  to  ornament  their  homes,  we  respectfully  dedicate  our 

"Art  Manual." 

THE  PUBLISHERS. 


f 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 


x  learning  the  art  of  drawing  or  writing,  like  all  other 
Arts  and  Sciences,  there  are  certain  first  and  fixed  prin- 
ciples to  be  observed  as  a  foundation  upon  which  the 

whole  is  built.  A  right  understanding  of  these  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  we  may  become  masters  of  that  art  which 
we  undertake  to  learn.  A  neglect  of  these  first  principles  is  the 
reason  why  so  many  who  have  spent  time  sufficient  to  become 
accomplished  artists,  are,  after  all  their  pains  and  loss  of  time, 
incapable  of  producing  even  fair  work ;  and  are  often  at  a  loss 
to  know  how  to  begin.  Many  commence  by  copying  the  work 
of  others,  and  are  surprised  to  find  how  little  such  ability  avails 
them  when  attempting  to  make  sketches  from  nature.  The  in- 
struction for  those  who  intend  prosecuting  this  delightful  study, 
is  prepared  with  great  care  by  the  author,  who  has  had  very  many 
years  of  experience  in  landscape  drawing.  'Tis  true  that  much 
of  his  ability  has  been  attained  by  years'  of  patient  industry 
and  practice.  Yet  time  might  have  been  saved  by  little  earlier 
attention  to  principles  and  study  of  works  on  the  subject,  pre- 
pared by  experts.  The  best  advice  to  those  contemplating  a  study 
of  the  art — who  possess  any  degree  of  skill  in  the  use  of  the 
pencil,  is  to  go  out  into  the  field,  with  the  "instructor"  in  one 
hand  and  your  sketch-book  in  the  other,  select  some  object  of 
interest,  and  "  take  it  in."  If  not  satisfactory,  try  again — be  not 
too  easily  discouraged.  You  will  find  the  study  of  nature  a 
source  of  pleasure,  objects  of  interest  will  appear  on  every  hand, 


G  INTRODUCTORY. 

in  the  valleys,  on  the  mountains,  the  lakes,  or  by  the  river  side, 
and  as  you  become  familiar  with  the  scenes  in  nature,  difficulties 
will  disappear,  and  you  are  happy  in  the  thought  that  sketching 
from  nature  is  truly  one  of  the  most  pure  and  refined  of  intel- 
lectual pleasures  and  professions,  and  the  sketch-book  with  you, 
as  with  the  writer,  will  ever  be  a  chosen  companion. 

When  this  branch  of  the  work  has  been  completed,  and  the 
landscape  transferred  to  paper  and  shaded  up,  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  task  is  accomplished.  The  next  essential  element 
in  the  advancement  of  the  picture,  and  that  which  renders  it 
more  beautiful  to  the  eye,  is  color.  Tis  well  to  turn  aside  from 
your  unfinished  landscape  or  portrait,  and  study  the  colors  in 
nature,  the  mixing  of  tints,  and  how  to  apply  them,  as  shown  on 
a  subsequent  page  of  this  book. 

To  become  an  artist  requires  only  a  love  for  the  art,  a  good  eye, 
and  an  abundance  of  continuity. 


Sketching  from  Nature. — How  to  Make  a  Drawing — Linear  Per- 
spective— Materials — Terms  in  a  Picture — Lines  in  Nature — Line 
of  Beauty — Landscapes — Selecting  a  Position — Lights  and  Shades  9 

Colors  in  Nature. — Primary  Colors — Advantages  of  Colors — Colors 
of  a  Spectrum — Mixtures  of  Colors — Transmission  of  Light — Pure 
"White,  Black,  Gray,  Green — Neutralization  of  Colors  ....  23 

Pen  and  Pencil  Drawing. — Paper  Used  for  Transferring — Prepara- 
tion of  Paper — Method  of  Transferring — Shading  by  Pen — Penta- 
graph— How  to  Use  it- -Copying  with  Transparent  Paper  ...  27 

Pastel  Painting. — Crayons  and  Pastels — Paper  Used — Exposure  to 
the  Sun — Colors  Employed— Colors  of  Paper — Mounting  the  Pict- 
ure— Sketching  In  the  Outlines — Applying  the  Crayon— Colors 
and  Composition  of  Tints — Background 29 

Landscape  Painting  in  Crayon.— Paper — Arranging  the  Paper — 
Drawing — Using  the  Colors — Fixing  the  Drawing — Materials  for 
Pastel  Drawing ' 33 

Monochromatic  Drawing. — Directions — Materials  Used — Shades — 
Blending — Sky — Mountains — Water — Moonlight — Old  Ruins,  etc.  37 

Water  Colors. — Instructions — Colors  Used  for  Sky  and  Distances — 
Hills — Trees — Foreground — Sky — Moonlight,  etc. — Selecting  the 
Paper  —  Different  Kinds  —  Brushes  —  Other  Materials  —  Colors 
Used 38 

Landscape  Painting  in  Oil  Colors. — Technical  Names  and  Materials 
Used — Mixing  of  Tints — How  to  Apply  Them — A  Glaze — Impast- 
ing —  Scrambling  —  Handling  —  Light  —  Brushes  —  Materials 
Used — Canvas — Prepared  Paper — Mill-boards — Panels — Palettes 
— A  Dipper — Rest  Stick — Knives— Easels — Vehicles — Mixed 
Tints 45 

Oil  Photo. — Miniature  or  Cameo  Oil — Improved  Method — Treating 
the  Photograph — Paste  Preparation — The  Glass  Cleaning — Colors 
Applied— Wedges — Caution — Directions  for  Coloring — Second 
Method — Ivory  Type  or  Mezzotint — Mounting  the  Photograph — 

Materials  Used — Another  Plan 55 

Photo  Painting  in  Water  Colors. — Selecting  Photograph — Prepar- 
ing the  Photo — Colors  Used— Coloring  Background,  Face,  Eyes, 
Mouth,  Hair,  Clothing — Shadowing 60 


Russian  or  Egyptian  Method.— To  Produce  First  Class  Picture — 

Applying  Colors — Palette — Liquid  Colors  Used — Brushes    .    .    63 
Making  Photographs.— Gelatine  Dry-plate  Process — The  Outfit — 
Fillingthe  Plate-Holder— Taking  the  Picture— Making  Negatives 
— Chemical  Outfit— Directions  for  Using  Chemicals — Instructions 
Summarized — Making  Prints  from  Negatives — Sensitized  Paper 

Prints — Toning  Process — Mounting  Pictures 65 

Draughtsmen's  Sensitive  Paper  for  Copying  Drawings. — Direc- 
tions— How  to  Use — Printing  by  Exposure 70 

Wood  Painting. — From  the  German — General  Preliminaries — 
Requisites — Colors — Transferring  the  Drawing  on  Wood — Enlarg- 
ing and  Reducing  Designs — Divisions  of  Wood  Surface — Tracing 
and  Transferring  Designs — Fixing  Transferred  Design — Color- 
ing—Retouching— Wood  Articles — Polishing  Designs  ....  71 

Transparencies. — Instructions — General  Directions 81 

Crystal,  or  Oriental   Painting.— Materials  Used— Colors  Used — 

Directions 83 

Antique  Italian  Landscape  Painting. — Style  of  the  Painting — 
Transferring — Quality  of  the  Glass  Used — Materials — Direc- 
tions— Paints  Used 85 

Grecian  Oil  Painting. — Selecting  the  Engraving — Applications — 
Method  of  Painting — Mixing  the  Paints — Eyes,  Hair,  Flesh — 

Suggestions — Colors — Brushes 87 

Ornamental  Glass  Sign  Work. — Lettering  Door  Plates — Ornament- 
ing Glass  Work,  Boxes,  etc.— Instructions— Lettering  the  Glass- 
Holding  the  Letters — Next  Process — Remaining  Directions — Ar- 
ticles Used— Note 89 

Vitremanie. — Easy  and  Inexpensive  Decoration  of  Windows, 
Churches,  Public  Buildings,  Private  Houses,  etc. — Supersedes 
Diaphanie — Defects  of  Diaphanie — Materials  Used  in  Vitremanie 
— Simple  Instructions— Applying  the  Design — Removing  the 

Paper — Arranging  the  Designs 91 

Diaphanie. — Similarity   to  Decalcomanie — Materials   Required — 

The  Application — Designs  Used 93 

Painting  on  Silk. — Satin  and  Silk—Its  Beauty  and  Popularity- 
Transferring — Painting    Directions — Using     Colors    Lightly — 
Raised  Work— Colors  Used— Bringing  out  the  Picture    ....    94 
Staining  Wood  and  Ivory.— Yellow  Mahogany — Black,  Red,  Blue, 

Purple — Acids  and  Materials  Used 96 

Crystalline  Surfaces.— Paper,  Wood,  and  Glass— Mixture  Used- 
Application — Directions 97 

China  Painting.— On  China,  Porcelain,  Earthenware,  and  Enamel- 
Colors  Used— Process  of  Burning  In — Tracing  and  Drawinir — 


—First  Method  —  Second  Method  — Third  Method  — Cleaning 
Brushes— Composition,  Use,  and  Mixing  of  Colors — Classification 
of  Colors — Tests — Fusibility — Thickness — Mediums — Conduct  of 
the  Work — Special  Information  Concerning  Painting  Colors — 
Mode  of  Use — Mixtures— Concordance  of  Enamel  with  Moist 
and  Oil  Colors— Technical  Names 99 

Monochrome. — China  Painting — Painting  on  Porcelain  or  Earthen- 
ware— Tints  of  Monochromes — Sketching  In — Painting  the  Head 
— Hair  —  Flesh  Tints  —  Drapery  —  Retouching  —  M.  Lacroix's 
Colors— Finishing  the  Monochrome— General  Suggestions  .  .  Ill 

China  Painting. — Painting  the  Head  in  Colors  on  Porcelain — Draw- 
ing and  Sketching  In — Highly  Colored  Faces— Cast  Shadows — 
Painting  the  Lips — Blue  Eyes — Fair  Hair — Colored  Draperies — 
The  Palette 115 

China  Painting. — Style  of  Boucher — Flowers,  Fruits,  Birds  and 
Landscape  on  Porcelain — Retouching  Leaves — Peaches — Instruc- 
tions on  Landscapes — The  Sky — Trunks  of  Trees — Branches — 
Houses — Ground — Water  —  Strengthening  Touches  —  Directions 
for  Packing 118 

Terra  Cotta  Painting. — Enamel,  Oil  and  Water  Color  Painting  on 
Terra  Cotta — Special  Instructions— Materials  and  Brushes  Used  123 

Burning  In. — Mineral  Decalcomanie — New  and  Beautiful  Art — 
Transferring  Pictures  to  China  and  Other  Ware — Imitating  Ex- 
actly  Beautiful  Painting  —  Directions,  Materials  Required, 
Designs,  Numbers,  Prices 126 

Natural  Flowers. — Preservation — Hot  Water  System — Sandwich 
Island  Process — Sand  Drying  Method — Last  Process  ....  129 

Paper-Flower  Making.  —  Arrangement  of  Bouquets — Materials 
Used — Directions  for  Using  Wire,  Silk,  etc. — Crimson  Rhododen- 
dron— White  Camelia,  Rose,  Pink  Fuchsia — Grouping  Flowers 
— Examples — List  of  Materials,  Tools,  etc 134 

French  Art — Decorating  Wood,  Leather,  Silk,  etc.— To  Decorate 
Delicate  Fabrics — Another  Method— Decorating  Dark  Colored 
Articles — Choice  of  Subjects — Covered  Designs — List  of  Subjects 
that  can  be  Decorated — General  Suggestions 143 

The  Wax  Art — Flowers  and  Fruit— Instructions  for  Making  Wax 
and  Molds — Materials  Used,  etc.— Molding — Preparing  Wax — To 
Mold  a  Calla  Lily—  Painting  Variegated  Flowers— Directions  for 
Sheeting  Wax — Molding  Wax  Fruit — Oranges,  Apples,  Peaches, 
Grapes,  etc. — Special  Instructions — Leaf  Molds,  Wires,  Steel  Mold- 
ing Pins,  Moss,  Miscellaneous  Articles,  Colored  Wax  ....  146 

Sprinkle  Work. — Decoration  of  Wood  and  China  Ornaments— Its 
Ease  and  Beauty— Utensils— Process — Special  Directions— Var 


nishing  and  Polishing    Sprinkle  Work  on  China — Veins — Colors 
Generally  and  Satisfactorily  Used — General  Suggestions    .    .    .  154 

Pearl  Embroidery. — Fish  Scales— To  Prepare  Them— Drawing  the 
Pattern  of  Leaf— Directions 161 

Feather  Flowers. — Instructions  to  Begin — Color  of  Feathers — 
Dyeing — Renewing  Ostrich  Feathers 162 

Lustral  Bronze  Painting. — Preparations — Instructions — Copy  from 
Engravings — Stems  of  Trees — Second  Shade — Figures — Parts  of 
Mountains— Varnishing — Suggestions — Gilding 164 

Japanese  Art.— Gathering  Leaves — Directions 16.") 

Staining  Glass. — Causes  of  Decay — Of  Glass  Painting — Colors  Used 
— Classes — Process  of  Laying  the  Colors — Peinture  et  Apprfit — 
Ground  or  Foundation— The  Vehicle— Most  Suitable  Oil — Palette 
— Pigments — Fused  Colors— Illuminated  Colors — New  Tone  of 
Color — Mosaic  Glass  Painting — Cartoons — Cutting — Over-laid 
Glass— Colored  Pot  Metal 169 

Gilding  Glass. — Preparations — Cutting  Figures  and  Ornaments — 
most  Important  Secret — General  Suggestions 179 

Etching  on  Copper. — Heating — Dabbing — Smoking — Etching — 
Fluid  for  the  Purpose — Directions 181 

Kensington  Painting. — Its  Progress  and  Popularity — Materials 
Used — Colors  Necessary — Applying  Colors — Flowers,  Leaves — 
Instructions 185 

Arrasene  Embroidery. — Novelty  and  Beauty — Wool  and  Silk  Arra- 
sene — A  Wild  Rose — Blind  Stitch — Double  Rose — Daisies^- 
Forget-me-not — Leaves — Stems —  Full  Instructions  ....  1S9 

Portraiture  in  Black  Crayon. — Careful  Instructions — Paper — Cut- 
ting and  Trimming — Dampening  and  Framing — Selecting  Mate- 
rials— Enlarging  the  Photograph — Tracing — Carefulness — Feat- 
ures— Pupils  of  the  Eyes — Iris — Nose — Lips — Blending  Process — 
The  Hair— The  Drapery— Collar  and  Shirt  Front— The  Back- 
ground— Lace  Work — Finishing — General  Important  Sugges- 
tions  191 

Analysis  of  Colors. — Nature  and  Quality — Blues — Reds — Browns — 
Mixing  Compound  Tints  for  the  Face — Tints  and  Colors — Pro- 
ducing them — Transparent  Colors — Semi-Transparent — Contrast 

and  Harmony  of  Colors 197 

Taxidermy. — Profit,  Usefulness  and  Beauty — Skinning — Mounting 
in  General — Preserving — Spiders  and  Insects — Shell  Fish — 
Polishing  Shells— Collecting  Animals — Recipes — General  and 
Special  Instructions  ,  ,  ,  , -  203 


DATURG 


@ 


"GOD   HAS   DIFFUSED  BEAUTY,  AND  ART   HAS  COMBINED   IT." 

Houssaye. 


SKETCH  is  a  graphic  memorandum.     "The  field  of  labor 
|J  is  the  wide  world  of  nature  —  her  beautiful  truths  the 
trw  lessons  to  be  learned  by  heart.    Once  fairly  Avithin  her 
^W        school,  Art  awakens  to  a  life  of  sympathy  with  its 
"i%T  teacher  that  lasts  forever."    A  capacity  for  drawing  means 
more  than  producing  a  linear  representation.     The  sculptor 
draws  when  he  models  the  plastic  clay  into  imitative  or  ideal 
creations.    The  painter  draws  when  he  disposes  his  pigments 
with  like  impulse.    The  stalwart  smith  draws  when  he  shapes 


10  SKETCHING    JrliOM    XATUBE. 

the  heated  metal  into  form.  He  that  cannot  draw  a  crooked 
line,  cannot  draw  a  straight  one,  and  he  who  cannot  draw  a 
.<t  might  line,  the  simplest,  easiest,  and  most  comprehensible,  has 
certainly  much  to  learn,  and  should  begin  with  it. 

In  Making  a  Drawing  from  Nature,  we  start  out  with 
one  of  two  things  in  view,  a  desire  to  make  a  perfect  copy  of 
the  scene  before  us,  or  a  wish  to  make  a  choice  selection 
from  the  whole,  and  arrange  it  to  suit  our  fancy.  The  first 
is  historic,  from  the  fact  of  its  being  a  true  and  faithful 
copy.  The  second  is  called  poetic,  as  the  effort  is  for  beauty  of 
arrangement  and  general  make  up.  In  the  latter,  the  artist  is 
generally  better  satisfied  with  his  effort  when  the  picture  is  com- 
plete, than  if  he  followed  closely  to  the  laborious  work  of  per- 
fectly copying  that  which  is  not  altogether  interesting.  But  at 
the  same  time  the  first,  that  of  picturing  facts,  must  form  the 
basis  of  the  art.  By  it  we  acquire  a  knowledge  of  detail,  and 
store  the  mind  with  true  nature,  Avhich  is  essential  in  good  work. 
A  true  and  faithful  copy  is  what  is  sought  after.  In  following 
our  own  fancy,  we  go  out  into  the  field  and  select  from  a  combi- 
nation of  objects,  and  make  up  our  picture.  We  find  a  log  cabin 
standing  beside  a  rocky  stream  of  rippling  water,  which  is 
spanned  by  an  ancient  log  bridge ;  in  another  place  we  find  cows 
grazing ;  and  again  a  horseman  is  coming  down  the  road.  We 
combine  the  three.  The  cattle  are  driven  into  the  stream,  the 
horse  and  his  rider  are  brought  into  and  form  a  part  of  the  pic- 
ture, which  is  now  complete. 

In  sketching  from  nature  it  is  first  essential  that  we  should  be 
trained  to  some  extent  in  a  course  of  perspective  drawing. 

Linear  Perspective  is  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
geometry  to  the  accurate  delineation  of  the  principal  lines  of 
the  picture.  Drawing  on  a  plain  surface  an  object  as  it  appears, 
or  as  it  would  appear  on  a  pane  of  glass,  held  between  you  and 
the  object. 

Perspective  is  absolutely  necessary  in  drawing  from  nature,  not 


SKETCHING  PROM  KATtJRfi.  ll 

only  in  perfecting  finished  work,  but  in  all  circumstances.  Theo- 
retically, as  well  as  practically,  it  bears  more  or  less  upon  all  the 
great  requisites  of  perfection  in  art.  We  can  by  its  aid,  select 
our  own  point  of  observation,  even  though  it  be  imaginary. 

Materials.  Of  the  variety  of  instruments  and  materials  for 
drawing  and  sketching,  there  is  the  lead  pencil  of  different  de- 
grees of  hardness,  and  tint;  then  there  is  the  French  crayon, 
tinted  crayons,  etc. ;  French  sketching  boards, prepared  of  various 
tints,  witli  skies,  and  suggestive  effects  ready  laid  in;  "solid 
sketching  blocks,"  bound  as  a  portfolio,  will  be  found  conven- 
ient. Paper  for  "cartoons"  can  be  obtained  of  most  any  size,  up 
to  six  feet  wide. 

In  a  Picture  we  have  Six  Terms,  the  center  of  the  pic- 
ture, or  center  of  view,  the  distance  of  the  picture,  the  base  line, 
the  horizontal  line,  the  perpendicular  line,  the  point  of  view. 

Lines  in  Nature.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  all  the  lines 
in  nature  are  curve  lines,  the  body  of  trees,  the  branches  and 
their  leaves,  and  the  fruit  that  grows  thereon ;  the  blades  of 
grass,  and  flowers  in  the  field ;  the  swells  of  the  ocean,  the  hills 
and  hollows,  are  all  composed  of  curved  lines.  Nature  is  all 
loveliness  and  perfection,  all  her  effects  are  true,  and  the  desire  of 
the  student  should  be  to  realize  them  thoroughly,  and  let  nature, 
and  nature  alone,  be  the  teacher,  following  her  faithfully,  in  the 
full  assurance  of  the  attainment  of  truth,  whatever  else  he  may 
fail  to  accomplish. 

Then  let  the  pencil,  the  servant  of  thought, 
Copy  the  lessons  which  nature  has  taught; 
For  the  skillful  hand  of  the  artist  entwines,"1 
No  garland  more  fair  than  her  beautiful  lines. 


12  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 


A   LESSON   IN   DRAWING. 

BEFORE  going  into  the  field  to  make  a  sketch,  it  is  essential 
you  become  familiar  with  the  different  lines  used  in  drawing, 
the  less  difficulty  you  will  have  in  sketching  from  nature. 
The  first  effort  will  be  to  get  control  of  the  hand  and  pencil, 
or  pen,  which  is  the  leading  essential  in  learning  to  write 
or  draw.    Secondly,  a  right  understanding  of  the  straight  and 
curve  lines  used  cannot  be  dispensed  with.      A   neglect  of 
these  first  principles,  and  the  want  of  a  thorough  drilling  by 
an  experienced  teacher,  in  our  educational  institutions,  is  the 
leading  difficulty  in  the  advancement  of    students  in  these 
branches,  and  has  often  been  a  subject  of  comment. 

There  are  three  leading  lines  in  drawing,  the  straight  horizon- 
tal line,  thus : 

made  by  carrying  the  pencil  from  left  to  right,  and  vice  versa, 
beginning  and  ending  abruptly ;  then  perpendicular  ones,  com- 
mencing at  the  top,  draw  the  pencil  down ; 
then. a  straight  oblique  line,  with  52  deg.  slant, 
which  is  about  the  proper  angle  for  writing. 

The  right  and  left  curve   is  used   as  the 
beginning  and  ending  of  all  the  small  letters. 


Fig.  1. 

The  Line  of  Beauty,  as  it  is  called,  is  the  two  curves  com- 
bined ;  commencing  at  the  top,  making  first  the  left  and  then  the 
right  line,  equal  in  length,  forming  a  compound  curve,  the 
basis  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  capital  letters.  A  combination  of 
curves  lying  horizontally,  as  in  fig.  2,  gives  the  line  which  is 


SKETCHING    FROM   NATURE. 


13 


formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  lips,  from  these  different  lines  our 
sketches  from  nature  are  made  up. 


Fig.  2. 

A  curved  line  changes  its  direction  at  every  point. 

A  circle  is  a  figure  comprehended  by  a  single  curve  line,  called 
its  circumference,  every  part  of  Avhich  is  equally  distant  from  a 


Fig.  3. 

point  called  the  center.  From  a  to  I  will  be  found  the  left,  or 
convex,  and  from  c  to  d  the  right,  or  concave  curve.  The  whole 
may  be  made  by  a  quick  movement  of  the  hand,  with  crayon,  on 
the  black-board,  thus ;  Turn  your  right  side  to  the  board,  place 
the  crayon  at  the  bottom,  c,  and  with  the  elbow  as  the  radius, 
carry  the  crayon  toward  the  left  from  c  to  a,  and  so  on  until  you 
reach  the  starting  point,  c,  again,  moving  the  hand  at  as  rapid  a 
rate  as  is  possible. 

Now,  if  these  lines  can  all  be  drawn  correct,,  and  with  freedom, 
take  the  equilateral  triangle  and  practice  it  without  a  ruler. 


Fig.  4. 

An  angle  is  the  space  between  two  lines  that  start  from  the  same  point. 


14  SKETCHING   FROM   MATURE. 

The  perpendicular  line,  passing  from  the  vanishing  point «,  to 
the  base  b.  The  whole  of  the  fig.  4  forms  what  appears  to  us  the 
gable  of  a  house,  a  the  point  where  the  rafters  meet,  b  the  center 
of  the  plate.  This  gives  the  horizontal,  vertical,  and  oblique  lines. 

I  shall  endeavor  to  make  these  lessons  clear  and  concise  for 
the  beginner,  touching  only  on  those  points  which  are  indispen- 
sable in  learning  to  draw.  Although  many  of  these  principles 
you  may  have  acquired,  the  elements  of  linear  perspective  is  the 
very  first  thing  to  which  your  attention  should  be  directed. 

Landscapes.  All  objects  which  present  themselves  to  the 
0  eye,  such  as  buildings,  forests,  fields,  mountains,  water,  &c., 
whether  viewed  from  a  hill  or  on  a  level,  we  will  call  a  landscape. 
Now  as  it  is  impossible  to  make  an  exact  copy  of  the  subject  be- 
fore us,  by  means  of  any  transfer  process,  it  can  only  be  effected 
by  a  distinct  apprehension  of  the  real  form  of  the  objects  them- 
selves, and  of  those  apparent  forms  under  which  they  are 
presented  to  the  eye,  in  their  different  positions  in  the  landscape. 
All  these  objects  have  their  outlines,  composed  either  of  straight 
or  curve  lines,  which  may  be  irregular  in  their  relation  to  each 
other.  Now  if  we  were  placed  on  a  flat,  horizontal  plain, 
the  water  or  ground  which  we  would  have  in  view  before  us, 
would  appear  to  rise  from  the  spot  on  which  we  stood,  the  limit 
of  that  rise  being  determined  by  a  clear  and  well  defined  straight 
line,  called  the  horizontal  line.  It  will  appear  in  the  lake ;  be- 
tween this  and  the  sky  no  object  intervenes.  This  horizontal  or 
boundary  line  lies  directly  opposite  to  the  range  of  the  eye,  and 
the  one  to  which  every  other  line  is  referred,  and  by  which  the 
accuracy  of  the  drawing  is  secured.  The  point  where  it  crosses 
the  perpendicular  line  will  be  the  center  of  our  picture. 

In  Placing  a  Landscape  on  Paper,  first  arises  the  ques- 
tion as  to  how  much  of  the  landscape  we  will  introduce  into  our 
picture.  Let  us  suppose  it  to  be  taken  from  the  point  of  view, 
then  that  position  of  the  scene  which  the  eye  can  easily  take  in, 


SKETCHTNG  FROM  NATURE.  15 

without  moving  the  head,  will  constitute  the  picture.  The  space 
included  between  the  point  where  we  are  standing  and  a  point 
where  our  picture  commences,  establishes  the  required  distance 
of  the  eye  from  the  proposed  picture.  Now,  if  through  this 
point  a  straight  line  be  supposed  drawn,  perpendicular  to  the 
horizon,  this  line  will  pass  through,  and  determine  the  foremost 
objects  of  the  picture — touching  all  the  leading  objects  directly 
in  front  of  us. 

Position  of  the  Horizontal  Line  will  depend  upon  whether 
or  not  we  make  the  sketch  from  the  ground,  or  from  an  elevation. 
If  the  view  be  made  from  the  level  with  it,  the  horizontal  line 
may  be  drawn  at  about  one-fifth  of  the  space  of  the  paper  we 
intend  for  our  picture.  If  we  take  the  sketch  from  an  elevated 
point,  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  then  the  horizontal 
line  may  be  placed  at  about  one-third  the  height,  and  so  on.  If 
the  view  is  to  be  made  from  a  high  hill,  or  top  of  the  house,  place 
the  horizontal  line  at  one-half  the  height. 

Now,  in  holding  up  the  pencil  or  ruler  horizontally  with  the 
eye,  and  on  a  level  with  it,  you  will  see  what  objects  will  appear 
on  that  horizontal  line.  In  making  a  photograph  of  a  building 
it  is  always  best  to  have  the  camera  a  little  elevated,  and  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  object,  as  a  better  picture  can  be 
secured.  All  horizontal  planes  seem  to  ascend  if  they  lie  below 
the  horizontal  line,  and  to  descend  if  they  lie  above  it,  vanish  or 
merge  into  it,  as  shown  in  figures  5  and  6. 

In  making  a  sketch  from  an  elevation,  the  distant  part  of  the 
view  seems  higher  than  the  foreground.  This  occurs  when1  the 
point  from  where  the  view  is  taken  is  too  much  elevated.  A 
better,  and  much  more  natural  perspective,  can  be  obtained  by 
lowering  the  point  of  view,  which  also  changes  the  horizontal  line. 

After  knowing  the  position  of  the  horizon  of  your  subject,  point 
of  sight  for  the  point  of  distance,  you  have  to  extend  the  line  of 
horizon  from  the  point  of  sight  to  the  limits  of  such  distance. 

For  illustration,  fasten  a  thread  with  a  pin  to  the  table,  at  a 


16 


SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 


point  corresponding  to  the  line  of  the  horizon  of  your  picture ; 
a  thread  thus  adjusted  will,  when  drawn  out  over  the  picture,  fall 
exactly  over  all  the  lines  seeking 

The  Vanishing  Point.  In  this  way  you  get  the  lines  for 
the  cornice  in  a  building,  or  row  of  buildings,  upper  and  lower 
lines  of  the  windows  and  doors,  base  and  sidewalk. 

In  making  a  sketch  of  a  building,  it  is  only  necessary  to  get 
the  general  outlines,  and  instead  of  working  in  all  the  doors  and 
windows,  finishing  up  the  cornice,  etc.,  all  that  is  necessary  will 
be  to  get  the  outline  of  one  door  or  window,  and  the  style  of 
cornice,  and  indicate  the  remainder  by  merely  a  mark  showing 
the  position,  and  make  a  memorandum  of  the  essential  points 
which  is  seeded  in  completing  the  work.  In  figure  5,  street  view, 


Fig.  5. 

make  a  dot  on  the  sketch  board  at  a  point  where  you  wish  the 
first  upper  corner  of  the  building  to  commence,  draw  a  perpen- 
dicular line  for  the  corner,  do  likewise  at  such  a  distance  to  the 
left  as  you  wish  the  building  to  extend  on  the  sketch,  and  you 
have  the  other  corner.  Holding  the  drawing  book  perpendicular 
between  you  and  the  building,  and  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  place 
the  ruler  on  the  sketch-book  corresponding  to  the  upper  horizon- 
tal line  of  the  building,  and  make  a  line  for  the  cornice,  the  base 
line  is  produced  in  the  same  manner.  The  point  C,  where  the 
two  lines  would  meet,  were  they  continued  toward  the  left,  will 
be  the  vanishing  point,  from  which  run  all  the  other  horizontal 
lines  when  you  come  to  finish  up  the  drawing. 


SKETCHING    FROM    NATURE. 


1? 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  THE  DRAWING  IN  DIFFERENT  POSITIONS  OF 
THE  HORIZONTAL  LINE. 

A  HORIZONTAL  right  line  has,  with  respect  to  the  plane 
of  the  picture,  one  of  three  positions.  It  is  either  par- 
allel to  it,  oblique  to  it,  or  perpendicular  to  it.  We 
will  sit  with  the  back  against  one  of  the  Avails  of  a 
rectangular  room.  The  wall  opposite  is  parallel  to  that 
behind  us,  and  consequently  to  the  plane  of  our  picture  in  that 


Fig.  6 


position.  The  two  remaining  walls  being  at  right  angles  with 
that  opposite,  are  evidently  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
drawing,  and  all  horizontal  right  lines  on  those  two  walls,  are 
also  perpendicular  to  that  plane,  and  will  appear  to  tend  towards 
a  point  immediately  opposite  to  the  eye.  H.  H.  is  the  horizontal 
line  or  level  of  sight  ;  C  the  point  opposite  the  eye,  and  that 
point  toward  which  all  horizontal  right  lines  on  the  walls,  A  &  B, 
appear  to  slant,  though  in  reality  they  are  perpendicular  to  the 
wall  C.  The  lines  1  &  2,  where  the  ceiling  and  sidewalls  meet, 
and  3  &  4,  the  lower  limit  of  the  walls,  as  well  as  the  horizontal 
lines  of  the  door,  and  its  panels,  are  in  that  position,  all  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  the  opposite  wall,  and  therefore  to  the 
plane  of  the  drawing.  The  effects  of  the  drawing  in  different 
positions  of  the  horizontal  line,  should  be  carefully  studied  ;  if  it 


18  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 

be  placed  above  the  level  of  the  eye,  and  removed  to  the  right  or 
left,  it  will  appear  like  this  : 


If  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  it  will  assume  a  direction  like  this : 


But  placed  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  eye,  on  a  perfect  level,  and 
horizontal,  it  will  appear  thus : 


If  drawn  from,  and  directly  opposite  to  the  eye,  the  end  may 

appear  thus : 

• 

A  point  has  position,  but  not  magnitude. 

If  a  book,  or  block  of  wood,  having  a  square  base,  be  repre- 
sented at  different  distances,  seen  from  a  point  in  which  its  sides 


Fig.  7. 

are  oblique  to  the  plane  of  the  picture,  and  seen  from  both  points, 
under  the  same  circumstances  in  all  respects,  as  regards  sur- 
rounding objects,  except  that  the  distance  of  the  artist  from  the 
base  line  is  much  less  in  one  than  the  other,  then  it  will  appear 
as  do  figures  7  and  8. 


Fig.  8. 

A  turf  ace  has  length  and  breadth  only.   A  solid  has  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness. 


SKETCHING   FROM    NATURE. 


l 


Iii  figure  7  the  distance  from  us  is 
much  greater  than  in  figure  8,  and  the 
vanishing  point  farther  away.  We  will 
find  the  first  the  most  pleasing  to  the  eye, 
although  both  are  accurate.  In  these 
figures  we  make  the  two  oblique  lines  of 
the  base  equal  in  length,  and  our  position 
directly  opposite  the  center  perpendic- 
ular line.  If  we  should  change  our  posi- 
tion further  to  the  right,  the  left  oblique 
line  at  the  base  would  apparently  shorten, 
and  vice  versa. 

In  making  a  sketch  from  nature,  the 
artist  must  choose  a  position  that  will 
command  the  best  view  of  the  scene  about 
to  be  placed  on  paper,  and  from  a  stand- 
point that  will  secure  the  leading  objects 
in  the  landscape  before  you.  Begin  by 
sketching  those  objects  nearest  you  first. 
The  reasons  will  be  shown  hereafter. 

In  attempting  to  make  a  "bird's  eye" 
view  of  buildings,  where  an  elevation  can- 
not be  obtained,  it  will  be  found  somewhat 
difficult.  We  can  only  mark  down  on  the 
sketch-book  what  can  be  seen  from  the 
position  we  occupy  on  the  level  with  the 
objects  before  us,  and  imagine  the  remain- 
der. At  the  same  time  three  things  should 
be  kept  in  view,  the  perspective,  the  per- 
pendicular lines,  and  proper  elevation,  in 
order  to  give  to  our  picture  the  appear- 
ance it  would  have  if  others  viewed  it 
from  the  supposed  point  of  observation 
as  the  sketcher. 

The  intention  of  the  writer  has  been 


20  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 

to  touch  upon  all  the  points  and  rules  in  drawing,  and  dwell  upon 
each  separately,  and  sufficient  for  a  person  of  ordinary  ability, 
and  a  good  many  grains  of  continuity,  to  make  a  sketch  artist. 

"It  matters  not  what  a  man's  vocation  may  be,  if  he  has  the 
taste  to  discern,  and  mind  to  esteem,  the  good  and  beautiful  in 
nature  and  art,  an  expression  of  refinement  will  be  manifest  in 
all  that  he  undertakes." 

In  this  work  I  did  not  expect  more  than  to  take  the  first  step 
toward  teaching  to  sketch  from  nature.  An  easy,  rapid,  and 
decided  manner  of  sketching  is  to  be  acquired  only  by  practice. 
It  is  an  acquisition  essential  to  excellence  in  all  the  other  artistic 
qualities,  to  which  if  serves  as  a  basis.  Having  given  you  the 
necessary  instruction,  I  will  now  assist  you  in 

Selecting  a  Position.  Choose  a  point  that  will  command 
a  good  view  of  the  scene,  and  prevent  closer  and  more  immediate 
objects  from  concealing  any  portion  of  the  remote  distance ;  and 
though  the  height  of  the  horizontal  line  in  this  case  may  some- 
times be  more  than  half  the  height  of  the  paper,  according  to 
the  elevation  attained  by  the  artist  to  command  the  view.  In 
this  case  the  horizontal  line  is  at  about  one-half  the  height  of 
the  paper.  It  frequently  occurs  in  making  a  sketch,  that  the 
artist  cannot  place  himself  at  the  desired  point  for  the  best  view. 
In  such  case  we  will  imagine  a  point  above  the  highest  object  in 
the  foreground  of  the  proposed  sketch.  That  point  may  be  on 
the  land,  or  on  the  water.  The  artist,  with  a  knowledge  of  per- 
spective and  elevation  in  view,  may  make  a  memorandum  of  the 
whole ;  but  should  he  attempt  to  draw  it  from  the  point  he  is 
compelled  to  see  it,  no  one  would  recognize  it  as  a  truthful  rep- 
resentation. AVe  regulate  the  whole  by  our  knowledge  of  per- 
spective, as  accurately  as  if  we  stood  upon  the  very  spot  from 
which  we  desired  to  be  understood  that  the  view  was  taken. 

In  Making  a  Bird's  Eye  View  of  a  village  or  city,  the  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  get  a  plat,  or  outline,  of  the  streets  and  blocks, 


SKETCHING   FROM   NATURE.  21 

and  mark  them  on  the  sketch-book  in  squares,  (or  rather  diamond 
shape),  each  line  and  cross  line  representing  a  street.  Commence 
sketching  in  the  buildings  from  the  point  chosen,  which  should 
be  the  one  nearest  the  business  center,  and  where  the  best  houses 
stand,  or  from  a  point  where  you  can  secure  the  best  material  for 
a  foreground,  such  as  a  stream  of  water  and  bridge, or  a  forest,  etc. 
Transfer  each  block  to  paper,  showing  the  fronts  of  one  side 
and  the  rear  of  the  buildings  of  the  other  side,  and  so  on 
through  the  entire  row  of  blocks,  when  you  return  to  the  place 
of  starting,  and  go  down  the  second  row,  always  working  toward 
the  vanishing  point. 

After  you  have  gone  over  the  entire  city,  and  taken  every  build- 
ing, tree,  and  other  objects  of  interest,  and  completed  the  sketch, 
you  are  ready  for  working  it  up.  Lay  out  the  blocks  and  streets 
on  drawing  paper,  with  pencil,  in  perspective,  ruling  from  the 
vanishing  point,  the  center  of  the  picture,  toward  the  point  of 
view,  which  enlarges  the  objects  of  the  foreground,  and  dimin- 
ishes those  in  the  distance. 

In  drawing  in  the  buildings,  begin  with  the  first  house  in  the 
foreground,  drawing  the  roof  lines,  which  should  be  parallel 
with  the  lines  of  the  street ;  next  the  gables,  after  which  the 
corner  lines,  which  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  drawing  paper. 

The  drawing  should  be  made  first  with  pencil,  and  then  in  ink, 
with  fine  pointed  steel  pen ;  for  shading,  use  small  camel  hair 
brush  and  India  ink. 

Lights  and  Shades.  In  a  sketch  it  is  found  that  mere 
outline  is  insufficient  to  the  representation  of  an  object  in  relief ; 
it  cannot  give  substance,  nor  define  relative  distances  so  as  to 
maintain  the  objects  in  their  proper  places.  The  matter  of  fact 
representation  of  the  breadth  of  a  meridian  light,  and  the  same 
passage  of  landscape  viewed  under  the  shades  of  evening,  affects 
the  feeling  very  differently.  In  the  latter,  there  is  a  charm  which 
operates  even  upon  minds  least  susceptible  of  impressions  from 
the  beauties  of  nature.  The  general  principle  acted  upon  by 


SKKTl  IllNC    FROM     N'.VIL'RK. 


artists,  is  to  dispose  the  lights  and  shades  in  the  manner  best 
suited  to  the  treatment  they  propose  lor  their  work. 

There  are  two  extremes  of  Ihrht  and  shade,  and  between 
these  lie  all  those  half  tints  and  reflected  lights,  and  exquisite 
gradations  of  shade,  which  must  be  so  carefully  placed  in  the 
drawing  as  to  clearly  indicate  the  graceful  curve  of  each  individ- 
ual petal,  without  in  any  way  destroying  the  roundness  and 
breadth  of  a  flower.  The  gradations  of  shade  are  sometimes 
perplexing  to  the  learner ;  but  in  this  respect  the  eye  is  a  very 
safe  guide.  It  requires  no  cultivated  taste — not  even  any  great 
amount  of  critical  observation — to  see  when  an  object  which 
should  look  perfectly  round,  appears  flattened  on  the  one  side,  or 
swell  too  much  on  the  other.  The  theory  of  foreground  and 
middle  distances  and  background,  has  much  to  do  with  the 
principles  of  light  and  shade.  It  is, not  the  lino  of  perspective 
alone  which  makes  one  portion  of  a  picture  retreat,  and  another 
come  forward. 

In  the  drawing  of  a  round  object,  apple  or  ball,  the  shades 
fall  on  the  concave  part,  and  incline  toward 
the  side  opposite  to  light.     All  shades  of  ob- 
jects in  the  same  picture  must  fall  the  same 
way,  or  farthest  from  the  light.      That  part 
lying  nearest  to  the  light  must  receive  the 
least  shade.     This  rule  will   be   noticed 
in   the   face,  folds  of  the   drapery,  otc. 
Lamlseapes    show    the    heaviest   shades 
nearest  us.  the  greater  the  distance  the 
lighter  grows  the  picture.     In  douds.  the 
shades  are  the  lightest  that  are  ir.'atv-t 
the  horizon,  it   being   the  great e.-t  dis- 
tance    from     us,    and 
those  nearest  the  center 
of     the     picture     the 
strongest. 


Colors  are  merely  sensations  produced  by  the  action  of  light  on  the  nervous 
tissue  of  the  retina,  which  covers  the  back  of  the  eye. 


[HERE    ARE    THREE    PRIMARY   COLORS    IX  NATURE, 

iBlue,  Red, -and  Yellow.  From  these  are  formed  all 
[the  other  beautiful  tints  which  well  up  from  the 
bosom  of  the  deep,  glows  in  every  flower,  blossoms  in 
the  trees,  and  sparkles  in  the  dew  drop;  softly 
stealing  from  the  moon  and  stars,  and  written  upon 
the  blue  arc  of  night,  lied  indicates  anger,  and 
sometimes  guilt.  Blue  is  said  to  be  true,  but  denotes 
melancholy  and  gloom.  Yellow  indicates  cautiousness  and  pru- 
dence, and  reflects  the  most  light  of  any,  after  white. 

Yellow-green  is  the  color  nature  assumes  at  the  falling  of  the 
leaf,  and  this  was  worn  in  the  days  of  chivalry,  the  emblem  of 
despair.  Green  denotes  tranquility.  In  heraldry  it  is  used  to 
express  liberty,  love,  youth  and  beauty,  and  at  one  time  all  let- 
ters of  grace  were  signed  with  green. 

The  color  of  all  objects  depend  on  the  action  of  those  bodies 
on  the  light  which  fall  upon  them,  the  different  rays  of  which 
they  reflect,  either  entirely,  or  only  partially.  The  light  of  the 
sun,  and  the  lights  used  for  illumination,  gas,  etc.,  seem  to  con- 
sist of  an  infinite  number  of  rays,  of  different  color,  and  however 
widely  they  may  be  spread  out  by  the  prism  in  the  spectrum,  can 


2-1  COLORS   IN   NATURE. 

never  be  entirely  separated,  but  always  form  an  even  gradation 
of  color,  from  red  at  one  end  of  the  spectrum,  through  orange, 
yellow,  green,  etc.,  to  purple  at  the  other  end.  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
divided  the  spectrum  into  seven  parts,  thinking  he  could  distin- 
guish seven  different  colors,  red,  yellow,  blue,  orange,  green,  in- 
digo, and  violet,  which  he  called  primary  colors.  Sir  D.  Brewster 
showed  that  those  colors  which  Newton  considered  simple  were, 
in  reality,  compound,  and  mixed  up  with  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  white  light.  He  concludes  from  his  experiments  that 
there  were  but  three  simple  colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue — by  the 
mixing  of  which  the  other  colors  were  produced. 

The  principal  advantages  attending  the  choice  of  red,  blue,  and 
yellow,  as  primary  colors,  are :  That  the  choice  seems  to  agree 
with  the  fact  that  whenever  a  ray  of  white  light  has  one  of  these 
three  colors  removed  by  absorption,  the  remaining  colors  of  the 
ray  is  that  which  would  be  found  by  an  equal  mixture  of  the 
other  two  colors.  And  when  a  ray  has  two  of  its  primary  colors 
removed,  the  remaining  color  of  the  ray  is  that  of  the  third  pri- 
mary color.  The  color  which  opposes  the  strongest  contrast  to 
any  primary  color,  is  that  secondary  color,  which  is  formed  of  a 
mixture  of  the  remaining  two  primaries,  in  such  proportion  as 
would  form  with  the  first  white  light.  This  color  is  called  its 
complimentary  color — colors  being  called  complimentary  to  each 
other  when  they  together  form  white  light.  For  instance,  blue 
has  for  its  complimentary  color  the  neutral  secondary  orange, 
formed  of  a  mixture  of  red  and  yellow,  and  this  color  gives  the 
most  vivid  contrast  that  can  be  opposed  to  blue.  Green  is  the 
complimentary,  and  strongest  contrasting  color  to  red,  and  red 
to  green  ;  and  yellow  the  strongest  contrast,  and  complimentary 
to  purple,  and  purple  to  yellow. 

When  the  colors  of  the  spectrum  in  a  circle,  in  a  perfect  gra- 
dation all  around  the  circumference,  and  so  that  the  three  pri- 
maries, red,  yellow  and  blue,  are  at  points  in  the  circumference 
equal  distance  from  each  other,  the  strongest  contrast  to  any 
color  will  be  found  at  a  point  on  the  other  side  of  the  circle  dia/- 


COLORS  IX    NATURE.  25 

metrically  opposite  to  it.  Thus,  blue  will  be  found  exactly 
opposite  to  orange,  which  will  be  intermediate  between  red  and 
yellow  ;  and,  in  the  same  way,  yellow-green  will  be  found  exactly 
opposite  purple-red,  etc.  Xow,  as  red,  blue  and  yellow  are  the 
three  primaries,  and  that  all  other  colors  are  composed  of  mix- 
tures of  these,  let  us  decide  which  of  the  many  different  colors 
called  reds,  yellows,  and  blues  we  are  to  consider  as  pure,  and 
true  primaries.  A  pure  yellow  has  been  decided  upon  ;  chrome- 
yellow  (Xo.  l),chromate  of  zinc  (citron  yellow),  or  light  cadmium. 
A  mixture  of  any  two  bright  primaries  will  produce  a  bright 
secondary,  and  any  admixture  of  the  third  primary  will  make 
the  secondary  color  produced  much  duller  or  blacker.  We  con- 
sider that  would  be  the  purest  blue  which  gave  the  brightest 
green  with  yellow,  at  the  same  time  that  it  gave  the  brightest 
purple  with  a  red,  and  it  was  decided  that  cobalt  blue  was  the 
pure  primary,  which  was  blue  with  regard  to  the  yellow  chosen. 
It  i.s  obvious  that  if  the  blue  were  a  greenish  blue,  although  it 
might  give  a  very  bright  green  with  yellow,  it  would  give  but  a 
dull  purple  with  the  red.  The  yellow  contained  in  the  blue,  and 
which  made  it  greenish,  would  blacken  or  dirty  the  purple  pro- 
duced, but  would  not  interfere  Avith  the  brightness  of  the  green. 
We  choose  carmine  for  the  primary  red  as  the  color  which  gives 
the  brightest  purple  with  cobalt  blue,  at  the  same  time  that  it 
gave  the  brightest  orange  with  chrome  yellow.  Thus  AVC  have 
chrome  (Xo.  1),  for  yellow,  cobalt  for  blue,  and  madder  carmine 
for  red.  These  are  the  primaries. 

Colored  objects  appear  colored  owing  to  their  action  on  light. 
This  action  consists  in  absorbing  one  or  more  of  the  different 
colored  rays  which  fall  upon  it,  and  reflecting  the  rest ;  and  it  is 
these  reflected  rays  that  give  the  color  to  the  object.  Bodies 
which  emit  light  are  called  luminous,  as  the  sun.  Bodies  which 
transmit  light,  and  through  which  objects  can  be  distinguished, 
are  called  transparent,  as  water,  glass,  etc.  Bodies  which  trans- 
mit light,  and  not  so  as  to  permit  objects  to  be  seen  through 
thcin?  are  called  translucent,  as  ground  glass,  etc.  Bodies  which 


26  COLORS   IX   NATURE. 

absorb  or  reflect  all  the  rays  of  light,  or  transmit  so  few  rays  that 
the  eye  does  not  perceive  them,  are  called  opaque,  as  wood, 
metal,  etc. 

What  we  call  a  pure  white  object,  such  as  chalk  or  white 
paper,  appears  white  by  reflecting  all  the  light  which  falls  upon 
it,  and  is  therefore  precisely  the  same  color  as  the  light  which 
falls  upon  it.  A  pure  black  object  is  one  which  alixorh*  all  the 
light  which  falls  upon  it,  and  reflects  none.  Such  an  object  will 
always  appear  black,  whatever  may  be  the  color  of  the  light  which 
falls  upon  it.  Gray  objects,  (pale  black),  absorb  the1  three  pri- 
mary rays  equally,  or  in  equivalent  proportions,  but  not  entirely, 
so  that  there  is  a  certain  portion  of  the  white  light  reflected 
unchanged.  A  pure  green  absorbs  all  the  red,  and  reflects  all 
the  yellow  and  blue.  A  pale  but  pure  green  absorbs  only  part  of 
the  red,  and  reflects  the  remainder  of  the  red,  together  with  all 
the  yellow  and  blue.  A  dull  and  blackish  green  is  formed  by  the 
absorption  of  all  the  red,  and  also  part  of  the  blue  and  yellow, 
and  the  reflection  of  the  remainder  of  the  blue  and  yellow. 
The  same  rule  will  apply  in  all  cases  of  all  other  colored  objects,, 
except  transparent  ones.  Silks  and  satins  of  either  color  reflect 
light. 

When  three  colored  rays  are  mixed  together  in  neutralizing 
proportions,  white  light  is  produced.  The  easiest  way  of  finding 
what  are  the  equivalent  proportions  of  tho  primary  colors  is  this : 
divide  a  circle  of  paper  into  three  equal  parts,  by  lines  drawn 
from  the  center  to  the  circumference.  Paint  one  of  these  spaces 
with  pure  yellow,  such  as  lemon  yelloAV,  or  the  palest  chrome  yel- 
low, and  paint  one  of  the  remaining  spaces  pure  but  weak  blue, 
with  cobalt,  and  the  other  space  pure  but  weak  red,  with  madder 
carmine.  Then  try,  by  spinning  the  card  rapidly  on  a  pivot, 
whether  these  colors  neutralize  each  other,  and  if  not,  darken 
that  color  that  is  deficient  until  the  gray  produced  is  neutral — 
that  is,  of  the  color  of  lampblack  mixed  with  white ;  and  when 
this  is  the  case,  the  colors  on  the  three  spaces  will  be  of  the 
proper  neutralizing  strength  for  equal  spaces, 


-8§f    PEN  AND  PENCIL  DRAWIK5, 

> 


BY  AID  OF  THE  TRANSFER  PROCESS. 

HE  art  of  transferring  pictures  from  one  paper  to  another 
is  Avhat  few  understand.  Many  have  drawings  or  engrav- 
ings which  they  hold  as  valuable  keepsakes,  and  wish  to 
preserve  copies.  The  plan  of  duplicating  almost  exactly 
a  picture  by  the  method  given  here,  is  original  with  the 
author  of  this  book,  who  has  many  a  time  found  it  valuable  in 
getting  perfect  the  outlines  of  engravings,  prints,  and  pictures  of 
various  kinds  for  pen  or  crayon  drawings.  Penmen  produce  very 
fine  specimens  of  pen  drawing,  aided  by  the  above  process  of 
copying ;  and  although  many  a  novice  in  the  art  of  pen  drawing 
exhibits  equally  as  good  designs  as  older  professionals,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  borrowed. 

The  paper  used  for  transferring  purposes  is  light  tea  paper, 
generally  found  in  a  tea  store,  or  on  sale  at  paper  stores. 

"We  Prepare  it  as  follows  :  Procure  a  piece  of  soft  pine  or 
cedar,  and  burn  to  a  coal ,  paste  one  side  of  the  tea  paper  with  it 
until  quite  black,  and  you  have  a  neat  transfer  sheet.  (In  choos- 
ing the  wood  be  sure  and  get  soft  white  pine).  Lay  this  black 
paper  upon  the  white,  where  you  wish  the  drawing  to  be  made, 
the  dark  side  down ;  upon  this  lay  the  copy,  face  up,  and  fasten 
the  whole  to  the  table  with  thumb  tacks,  to  prevent  its  moving 
around  and  changing  the  outlines.  This  done,  go  over  the  whole 
•with  a  tracer  made  of  wood  or  ivory,  with  sufficient  pressure  to 
carry  the  lines  through  to  the  paper  underneath,  following  every 
outline  of  the  picture  until  the  whole  has  been  gone  over.  Lift 
the  tracing  paper,  and  you  have  upon  the  sheet  below  the  desired 


28  TRANSFERRING 

(lnuvin.tr,  which  YOU  now  <ro  over  \viLh  pen  or  pencil.  After  this 
is  done,  rub  the  crayon  from  oil'  the  picture  with  your  handker- 
chief, and  complete  the  sh;  din:,'  \vilh  :i  fine  pointed  steel  pen  or 
pencil,  keeping  the  copy  before  you.  Use  Spencerian  Artistic 
Pen,  Crow-quill,  or  Gillott's  Xo.  170. 

THE  USE  OF  THE  PENTAGRAPH. 

THIS  is  an  instrument  in  four  sections,  so  arranged  that  you 
can  enlarge  or  diminish    in   size,  and  copy  a  photograph, 
engraving,  or  any  kind  of  picture.    It  contains  a  screw  to  fasten 
it  to  the  table,  a  small  steel  needle  to  guide  in  the  outlining,  and 
a  lead  pencil  to  do  the  drawing. 

How  to  Use  it.  Screw  the  Pentagraph  to  the  table,  with 
the  needle  point  to  your  left,  upon  the  photograph,  (which  is 
fastened  to  the  table  also),  holding  the  end  containing  the  pen- 
cil with  the  fingers,  to  the  right.  With  your  eye  on  the  photo, 
move  the  hand  so  that  the  needle  follows  the  outlines  of  the  copy, 
and  the  pencil  is  producing  the  same  on  your  drawing  paper  at 
the  right.  In  this  way  go  over  the  entire  picture  until  you  have 
a  complete  copy  of  the  same.  You  may  now  shade  with  pen  or 
crayon  to  suit  the  wants  of  the  copy. 

The  small  screws  on  the  bars  near  the  figures,  are  u'sed  in  ad- 
justing it  to  suit  the  size  of  picture  required. 

COPYING  WITH  TRANSPARENT  PAPER. 

IT  NOTHER  method  of  transferring  pictures  to  paper  is  by  the 
f\  use  of  a  transparent  paper,  which  is  made  by  dissolving  cas- 
*•  |  tor  oil  in  absolute  alcohol,  and  applying  the  liquid  to  the 
paper  with  a  brush  or  sponge.  The  paper  becomes  dry  as 
soon  as  the  alcohol  evaporates,  which  is  almost  instantly.  After 
which  lay  the  paper  on  the  picture  you  are  about  to  copy,  and 
with  a  pencil  follow  the  outlines  of  the  picture  until  you  have 
gone  over  the  whole.  As  soon  as  done  immerse  the  paper  in 
alcohol,  which  will  remove  the  oil,  and  restore  the  paper  to  its 
natural  state. 


PASTEL  PAINTING, 


WITH  SUGGESTIONS  FROM  THE  BEST  ENGLISH  AUTHORS. 


"  Exactly  in  proportion  as  an  artist  is  certain  of  his  end,  will  he  be  swift 
and  simple  in  his  means;  and  as  he  is  accurate  and  deep  In  his  knowledge, 
will  he  be  precise  and  refined  in  his  touch."— Ruskin, 


PORTRAITS. 

the  past  few  years  a  great  improvement 
lias  been  made  in  the  execution  of  portraits 
in  black  and  colored  crayons.  Crayon  paint- 
ing is  much  easier  in  its  execution  than  oil 
painting,  and  pictures  may  be  completed  at 
one  sitting,  owing  to  the  fact  that  dry  colors 
are  used  instead  of  oil,  which  may  easily  be  removed  or  changed 
at  will,  left  and  resumed  again  at  any  time  desired.  In  this  de- 
partment of  art  crayon  takes  the  place  of  finish  and  paint,  in  all 
the  different  places  where  colors  are  used. 

Crayon  painting  is  said  to  have  been  practiced  for  a  century 
or  more  after  it  came  into  use,  and  during  the  past  few  years  it 
has  had  a  "big  run"  in  this  country. 

Crayons,  or  Pastels,  can  now  be  purchased  by  the  box,  in 
all  varieties  of  tint,  each  box  containing  a  graduated  series. 

The  Paper  upon  which  the  drawing  or  painting  is  made,  is 
manufactured  for  this  purpose  in  such  a  manner  that  the  tex- 
ture becomes  loosened  and  forms  a  woolly  surface,  which  as- 
sists the  blending  of  the  tints,  and  receives  the  crayon. 

As  soon  as  a  crayon  picture  is  completed  it  will  necessarily 
have  to  go  under   glass,  for  so  slightly  tenacious  is  the  crayon,  ia 


30  PASTEL   PAINTING. 

some  placea  where  it  may  have  been  repeatedly  applied  with  a 
view  to  brilliancy,  that  it  niay.be  blown  from  the  surface  of  the 
paper. 

Exposure  to  the  Sun,  which  may  brighten  pictures  painted 
in  oil,  will  in  a  short  time  destroy  the  delicacy  of  crayon  colors. 
They  must  also  be  kept  free  from  moisture  or  dampness,  as  it  is 
sure  to  change  the  color  and  produce  spots  on  the  face  of  a  por- 
trait, or  the  sky  in  a  landscape. 

Colors.  The  colors  employed  in  pastel  painting  are  about 
the  same  as  used  in  oil  painting,  with  some  exceptions.  The 
best  for  crayon  work  are  the  following : 

Oxide  of  Zinc,  White  Chalk,  Spanish  White,  Naples  Yellow, 
Mineral  Yellow,  Chromes,  Cadmium  Yellow,  Gallstone,  Soft  Red 
Chalk,  Chinese  Vermilion,  Venetian  Red,  Chrome  Red,  Carmine, 
Lakes,  Indigo,  Prussian  Blue,  Smalt,  Cobalt,  Terre  Verte,  Cobalt 
Green,  Brunswick  Green,  all  the  Greens  from  Copper,  Green  Ox- 
ide of  Chromium,  Lampblack,  Umber,  Ivory  Black,  Blue  Black, 
Black  Chalk. 

Color  of  Paper.  In  regard  to  the  use  of  paper,  any  color 
may  be  used,  it  being  wholly  a  matter  of  taste  Avith  the  artist. 

The  prevailing  colors  are  Blue,  Drab,  Grey,  Straw,  Buff, 
Olive  and  Stone  Colors. 

A  yellowish  tint,  you  will  find,  produces  the  best  results. 

Mounting  the  Picture.  Before  commencing  upon  the 
drawing  it  must  be  mounted  upon  a  stretcher,  after  which,  with 
a  firm  crayon,  trace  the  outlines,  with  either  red,  brown,  or  grey 
color.  The  beginner  will  find  the  Pentagraph  of  excellent  ser- 
vice for  outlining  where  you  are  working  from  a  copy. 

Sketching  in  the  Outlines.  This  must  be  done  lightly, 
in  order  that  the  crayon  does  not  enter  into  the  texture  of  the 
paper,  so  as  to  render  the  marks  difficult  to  be  superseded  subse- 
quently by  the  necessary  colors.  When  the  outline  is  completed, 
the  breadths  are  made  out  by  means  of  a  brown  crayon,  and  a 
stump,  working  for  the  degrees  of  shade. 


PASTEL  PAINTING.  31 

Applying  the  Crayon.  When  the  likeness  is  satisfactory 
in  the  sketch,  the  complexion  may  be  commenced  on,  beginning 
with  the  lights.  The  whites,  yellorWB,  reds  and  greys  must  be 
worked  in,  and  blended  io  an  imitation  of  the  reality  of  nature. 
From  the  highest  lights,  proceed  in  regular  order  to  the  deepest 
shades,  and,  in  order  to  secure  substance,  these  must  be  put  in 
equal  in  strength  to  nature ;  after  which  the  middle  tones  must 
be  carefully  blended,  so  as  to  unite  the  lights  and  shades  by  im- 
perceptible gradations.  The  markings  must  be  definitely  made 
out,  and  the  reflexes  also,  if  there  be  any.  As  the  fresher  tints 
occur  principally  in  the  lights,  it  would  be  well  to  keep  the  color 
rather  high,  and  of  a  warm  tone,  in  order  to  reserve  the  bright- 
est and  most  effective  tints  till  the  last. 

When  all  the  tints  have  been  laid  in,  and  the  head  is  in  a  sat- 
isfactory state  as  to  form,  color  and  expression,  then,  with  the 
finger,  pass  over  the  whole,  working  and  blending  the  colors  in 
harmony.  In  this  operation  the  finger  is  used  instead  of  a 
stump,  and  nothing  else  will  answer  better.  When  this  opera- 
tion is  concluded,  the  crayons  will  be  again  used  to  bring  up  the 
colors,  and  tone  to  those  of  the  life — to  modify  and  correct  those 
which  may  require  retouching. 

Those  parts  Ayhich  are  heavy  must  be  relieved,  and  those 
which  may  be  too  cold  or  too  warm,  must  be  reduced  to  har- 
mony. Working  with  the  finger  will  be  found  the  most  avail- 
able method  of  managing  the  crayons. 

Having  laid  in  the  tints,  according  to  the  natural  complexion, 
it  will  be  necessary,  before  touching  the  work  with  the  finger  or 
blender,  to  be  certain  that  all  are  laid  in  the  proper  places ;  a 
little  experience  will  enable  you  to  judge ;  there  remains  but  lit- 
tle work  for  the  fingers  to  perform,  and  the  less  the  colors  are 
worked  upon  the  more  fresh  and  transparent  they  will  remain. 

Colors  and  the  Composition  of  Tints.  The  shades  of 
flesh  tints  are  warm  or  cold,  according  to  the  warmth  or  cold- 
ness of  the  breadths  of  the  light.  If  the  lights  be  of  a  healthy 
hue,  the  shades  may  be  warm,  inclining  to  brown,  mixed  of  va- 


3$  FASTEL  PAINTING. 

rious  colors,  broken  with  light  red,  carmine,  yellow,  blue  or  grey. 
Some  artists  represent  nature  as  violet  or  green,  in  shade ;  but 
this  is  untrue  and  must  be  guarded  against.  It  is  advisable  gen- 
erally to  follow  the  Italian  feeling  of  leaving  the  dark  passages 
warm.  When  the  complexion  is  strong  in  color,  the  effect  is 
most  agreeable ;  if  worked  without  hardness,  opacity  or  black- 
ness. In  feminine  portraits  the  work  must  be  brought  up  to  the 
utmost  brilliancy  of  color,  by  the  brightest  and  freshest  hues, 
composed  of  White,  Naples  Yellow,  Vermilion  and  Madder, 
mellowed  with  Yellows,  or  slightly  purpled  with  Lake  or  Car- 
mine, according  to  the  prevalent  tint  of  the  subject.  In  the 
masculine  subject  the  colors  will  be  stronger,  and  the  half-tints 
more  positive.  Great  care  must  be  observed,  lest  the  high  and 
delicate  passages  be  soiled  or  stained.  They  must  only  be  ap- 
proached by,  and  blended  with,  other  shades  at  their  extremi- 
ties ;  and  these  shades  are,  in  most  cases,  half  tints. 

It  will  be  clearly  seen  by  the  artist,  that  if  the  intermediate 
tint  be  too  cold,  it  must  be  treated  with  the  reds  or  yellow ;  if 
too  warm,  reduce  by  grey  or  blue.  The  lights  and  shades  should 
be  carefully  graduated,  and  harmony  prevail  throughout  the 
work. 

Backgrounds. — For  backgrounds  there  is  no  established  rule ; 
a  head  may  be  relieved  by  a  light,  or  dark  background,  either 
producing  good  effect.  A  dark  background  is  not  always  suit- 
able for  female  loveliness. 

Backgrounds  are  not  to  be  nibbed  in  mechanically,  with  the 
idea  that  any  dark  shade  will  relieve  any  light,  or  that  any  mid- 
dle tint  will  suffice.  As  a  general  rule,  the  background  around 
the  head  should  be  lower  in  tone  than  the  half  tints  of  the 
face,  and  lighter  than  the  shades — to  disengage  the  head. 

Where  the  paper  becomes  greasy  or  glazed  by  the  too  frequent 
application  of  the  pastel,  or  the  finger,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
rub  it  with  pumice  pounce,  or  with  cuttle-fish,  lightly. 

If  the  paper  stretches  by  constant  pressure  on  it,  you  can  rem- 
edy it  by  wetting  the  back  with  a  light  solution  of  alum  water. 


LANDSCAPE  PAINTING 

WITH 

CRAYDN  CDLDRS, 


*HE  crayons  used  are  much  harder  than  the  soft 
kind  required  in  portraits;  they  are  manufac- 
tured expressly  for  landscapes,  and  resemble  firm 
chalk.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  use- 
ful crayons :  White,  Italian  chalk ;  straw  colors 
and  light  yellow,  hlue,  grey,  vermilion  and  In- 
dian reds ;  blacks,  conte  crayons  Nos.  1,  2  and 
3.  The  white  Italian  chalk  is  used  both  for 
light  touches  and  blending  all  the  other  crayons 
into  which  it  may  be  worked. 

The  black  conte  chalks  are  also  of  the  utmost  importance ; 
Nos.  1  and  2,  the  harder  degrees,  are  used  for  outlining,  and  the 
softest  degree,  No.  3,  may  be  blended  with  many  colors  to  re- 
duce their  fbnes. 

The  Paper.  The  paper  must  be  a  good  quality  of  drawing 
paper,  such  as  will  take  the  crayon,  and  it  must  supply  a  good 
middle  tint,  as  the  color  of  the  paper  appears  through  almost 
every  passage  of  the  finished  work.  A  soft  paper  of  a  low-toned 
olive  tint,  which  has  been  found  by  long  experience  to  be  better 
adapted  than  any  other  for  landscape  drawing,  as  affording  an 
agreeable  neutral,  upon  which  warm  or  cold  tones,  lights  or 
shadows,  may  be  placed  with  the  best  effect. 

Arranging  the  Paper.  Attach  the  paper  to  a  drawing- 
board  with  thumb  tacks,  in  order  that  it  may  be  kept  smooth 
and  level  while  the  flat  tints  are  rubbed  in.  It  is  well  to  select 
paper  some  larger  than  your  design,  so  as  to  give  the  picture  a 
margin. 


34 


LANDSCAPE  PAINTING  WITH  CRAYON  COLOES. 


The  Drawing.  "With  conte  crayon  No.  1  the  design  must 
be  outlined,  showing  enough  of  the  objects  to  guide  you  in  the 
fiat  tints  of  the  sky  and  distances. 

The  difference  in  the  crayons  used  in  portrait  and  those  in 
landscape  painting  is,  that  the  latter  is  much  harder,  which  is 
essential,  as  will  be  seen  when  applied  to  the  paper.  The  breadths 
of  the  composition  are  not  laid  by  working  with  the  point  of  the 
crayon,  but  a  part  of  the  crayon,  sufficient  for  the  purpose  re- 


quired, is 
brokenoff 
and  ap- 
plied flat 
to  the  pa- 
per. Work 
it  lightly 
over  those 
parts  of 
the  draw 
ing  that 
it  is  de- 
sired to 
tint,  and 
the  light- 


ness  of 
the  tint  is 
derived 
from  the 
hardness 
of  the 
crayon, 
which  is 
"bitten" 
by  the 
surface  of 
the  paper, 
andleaves 
on  it  a 
quantity 


of  the  color.  This  tint  is  rubbed  vigorously  with  the  fingers,  so 
as  to  work  the  colors  well  with  the  texture  of  the  paper ;  as  the 
operation  leaves  but  little  color  these  tintings  are  repeated  until 
the  necessary  strength  of  tone  is  obtained,  varying  and  blending 
the  colors  by  working  them  into  each  other  from  different  direc- 
tions with  the  fingers,  as  the  subject  may  require ;  draw  the  re- 
mote forms  with  pieces  of  crayon,  held  flat  or  lengthwise.  Blend 
the  tints  in  and  repeat  where  necessary.  The  distant  ridges  of 
the  mountains  being  made  out,  the  middle  distance  and  the 
nearer  objects  are  approached  by  the  nearer  tints ;  still  drawing 
with  broken  pieces  of  crayon,  working  obliquely  or  otherwise. 
The  black  conte  Nos.  1  and  2,  are  used  in  the  near  parts  of  the 


LANDSCAPE  PAINTING  WITH  CKAYON  COVOES.  35 

picture;  all  the  striking  features  of  the  foreground,  such  as 
trees,  rocks  and  buildings,  are  drawn,  and  the  material  used  in 
the  manner  described.  When  any  fine  lines  are  necessary,  they 
are  not  made  with  the  crayon  cut  to  a  point,  but  by  the  sharp 
edges  of  the  fracture  of  the  crayon. 

Using  the  Colors.  Each  object  having  been  drawn  in 
with  the  conte,  it  is  now  tinted  or  colored  by  working  over  the 
black  markings  with  the  necessary  colors.  It  is  like  the  opera- 
tion of  glazing  in  oil  painting,  as  under  the  light  lines  of  the 
tracing  of  the  colored  crayon  the  conte  drawing  is  still  visible. 
By  blending  and  again  drawing  with  conte,  and  again  glazing 
as  often  as  may  be  necessary,  we  approach  the  finish  of  the  pic- 
ture, which  is  completed  by  sharp  touches  of  light  put  in  with 
sharp  points  of  the  broken  ends  of  colored  crayon.  The  color 
should  be  used  sparingly,  and  the  black  chalk  should  appear 
prominent  in  the  drawing.  Do  not  rub  in  the  colors  in  finish- 
ing or  you  destroy  the  effect.  The  beauty  of  the  work  depends 
upon  the  paper  being  perceptible  through  the  final  finish.  Any 
markings  too  sharp,  may  be  worked  down  by  the  finger  or  blend- 
er. These  retouchings  are  repeated  until  the  desired  effect  be 
obtained. 

As  crayon  painting  is  liable  to  become  changed  or  removed, 
even  by  blowing  upon  it,  we  must  present  some  method  whereby 
it  can  be  fixed  permanent. 

Fixing  the  Drawing.  Infuse  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  isin- 
glass in  five  ounces  distilled  vinegar  twenty -four  hours ;  add  to 
this  one  quart  of  hot  water,  keep  at  a  light  heat,  stir  often  un- 
til the  ism-glass  is  dissolved,  when  you  filter  it  through  paper ; 
pour  it  into  a  bottle  with  the  same  quantity  spirits  of  wine, 
shake  a  few  minutes  and  you  have  the  fixatif  ready. 

Place  the  picture  face  down  (avoid  having  the  colors  touch 
anything),  and  apply  the  liquid  to  the  back  with  a  brush  until  it 
has  penetrated  through  to  the  crayon  and  all  the  colors  become 
moistened  and  bright.  The  first  application  will  penetrate  very 


36  MATERIALS  FOR  PASTEL  DRAWING. 

quick.  After  this  apply  another  with  great  care  and  evenness, 
and  not  so  plentiful  as  at  first.  When  done  lay  it  with 
face  up  until  dry.  The  picture  is  now  completed.  After  this 
process  of  fixing  the  colors,  they  can  be  cleaned  any  time  with- 
out injury  to  the  painting. 


MATERIALS  FOR  PASTEL  DRAWING. 


Crayons,  square  black  conte,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3.    Square  white,  red, 
and  grey,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3. 
Bound  black  conte,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3. 
Round  white  and  red  crayons. 
Conte  crayon  pencils  in  wood,  Xos.  1,  2.  and  3. 
Charcoal  in  sticks. 

Hard  and  soft  pastel,  containing  130  shades. 
Crayon  holders.    (Brass  and  German  silver.) 

PREPARED   PASTEL   PAPER. 

Eoyal,  super-royal,  double  elephant,  colombier. 

STUMPS  USED. 

Chamois  skin,  cork,  paper,  (grey). 


DIRECTIONS 


FOR  DOING  THE 


MONOCHROMATIC  DRAWING. 


pasteboard  or  drawing  paper,  size  with  isin  glass,  or 
paint  with  pure  white  lead.  When  thoroughly  dried, 
smooth  it  down  with  sand-paper,  and  paint  again.  Be- 
fore this  coat  is  perfectly  dry,  sift  upon  it  pulverized  white 
marble,  through  muslin.  "When  dry,  shake  off  the  loose  marble 
that  remains.  Monochromatic  board  can  be  found  already  pre- 
pared at  the  book  stores,  where  artist  materials  are  kept.  The 
materials  needed  for  this  work,  is  a  thin-blade  knife,  crayons, 
fine  sponge,  pencil,  cork,  rubber,  blender,  &c..  Commence  paint- 
ing with  the  dark  shades  first,  and  blend  gradually  into  the  light. 
For  very  dark  shades,  rub  the  crayon  directly  upon  the  surface 
with  a  light  hand,  and  blend  off  carefully.  Paint  the  sky  first, 
as  in  water  colors.  It  is  well  to  shade  distant  mountains  very 
light  at  first,  and  be  sure  to  have  the  edges  soft  and  faint.  For 
water,  scrape  some  black  crayon  into  a  powder,  and  lay  it  on  your 
board  with  the  blender,  working  it  horizontally,  making  the 
lights  and  ehades  stronger  as  it  comes  nearer.  Use  the  pen-knife 
for  making  sharp  lights.  Dark  subjects  work  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, such  as  moonlight  scenes  on  the  water,  old  ruins,  etc.  The 
foliage  requires  a  great  deal  of  attention  in  showing  it  up.  Draw 
in  the  figures  last.  One  familiar  with  crayon  or  pencil  drawing 
can  acquire  this  branch  of  art  very  easily. 


WATER  COLORS. 


this  branch  of  fine  art  we  will  avoid  all  prelimi- 
nary remarks  in  regard  to  its  advantages,  and  di- 
rect you  at  once  to  the  method  of  treating  it,  in 
as  clear  and  comprehensible  a  manner  as  possible, 
and  at  the  same  time  omit  nothing  that  will  in 
any  way  facilitate  the  progress  of  the  learner. 

INSTRUCTIONS. 

Arrange  the  paper  for  the  painting,  after  spong- 
ing it,  by  stretching  upon  a  drawing  board,  and 
then  turn  to  the  mixing  of  the  colors. 

Colors  Used  for  Skies  and  Distances. 
FOR  BLUE  OF  SKY. — Cobalt  Blue,  lowered  with 
Pink  Madder  and  Gamboge,  to  the  hue  required. 
Ochre  may  be  substituted  for  Gamboge. 

CLOUDS. — The  same  mixed  so  as  to  form  a  va- 
riety of  warm  and  cool  pearly  greys. 

FOE  EXTREME  DISTANCE. — Cobalt  and 
Venetian  Red. 

FOR  LOCAL  TINTS. — Blend  the  colors  so 
that  the  tints  produced  may  in- 
cline toward  yellow,  red,  or  any 
tint  required. 

FOR  MIDDLE 
TINTS,  use  Indi- 
go, Pink  Madder 
and  Ochre  on  the 
same  principle  for 


WATER  COLORS.  39 

the  light  parts,  and  Indigo,  Pink  Madder  and  Gamboge  for 
shady  portions. 

SETTING  SUN, — Use  Yellow  Ochre  and  Pink  Madder,  or  Vene- 
tian Bed  and  Yellow  Ochre ;  sometimes  Vermilion  and  Gamboge 
or  Indian  Yellow  in  small  proportions,  when  a  strong  effect  is  to 
be  given. 

TREES. — In  painting  trees  use  Indigo,  Burnt  Sienna  and  Gam- 
boge, These  colors  will  make  tints  for  the  light ;  Indigo  mixed 
with  Vandyke  Brown  becomes  a  fine  deep  grey,  of  a  green  hue. 
Purple  Lake  may  be  added  when  you  want  the  tint  more  neutral. 

FOREGROUND. — Green  in  foreground  is  made  by  mixing  Sepia 
with  Olive  Green  in  the  shade,  and  Olive  Green  and  Burnt  Sienna 
in  the  lighter  parts.  A  light  transparent  yellow,  raw  Sienna  or 
Italian  Pink  may  be  carried  over  the  foreground  where  herbage 
is  to  be  represented,  when  a  bright  sunny  effect  is  desirable  to 
give  fullness  and  richness  to  the  colors  that  come  afterward ;  it 
also  answers  for  high  lights  upon  leaves,  and  the  brilliant  specks 
which  are  left  sharp.  Indigo,  Indian  Bed  and  Ochre  for  the 
ashy  grey  of  loam ;  Burnt  Umber  alone,  or  mixed  with  Burnt 
Sienna,  pure  Ochre,  and  Ochre  mixed  with  Sepia  alone,  and 
mixed  with  Purple  Lake  for  dark  parts ;  also,  Vandyke  Brown 
and  Purple  Lake,  or  pure  Brown  Madder  for  very  dark  touches. 

Indigo,  mixed  with  Gamboge,  makes  a  cold  green  well  suited 
to  dark  leaves ;  Purple  Lake  may  be  added  for  cool  reflected 
lights ;  Indian  Red  mixed  with  Indigo  to  a  pale  tint  for  willow 
leaves  or  foliage  stained  with  dirt,  or  for  the  grey  back  of  a  leaf. 

These  cold  greys  and  greens  are  of  great  value  in  foregrounds 
to  repeat  the  cool  greys  and  cold  lights  of  the  sky  in  pictures 
composed  of  much  warm  color  in  the  middle  distance,  as  mid- 
day effects,  sunsets,  etc.  The  foreground  should  show  a  great 
deal  of  relief,  distinctness  and  accuracy  in  the  drawing  of  these 
small  objects  which  are  particularly  marked,  but  are  merged  in- 
to masses  when  further  removed.  With  regard  to  roads  in  your 
painting,  Yellow  Ochre,  mixed  with  Burnt  Sienna,  and  lowered 
with  Indian  Red  and  Indigo.  Indigo  and  Brown  Madder  being 


40  WATER  COLORS. 

transparent  colors,  will  allow  a  wash  of  Cobalt  Blue  and  Pink 
Madder  to  alter  the  hue  without  danger  of  opacity. 

WATER. — The  same  as  for  clouds,  blended  with  the  local  color 
of  the  water  (greenish)  and  with  the  reflected  objects. 

DARK  SEA  is  indicated  by  combining  Indigo,  Vandyke  Brown 
and  Lake. 

DARK  SKY. — Indigo,  mixed  with  Pink  Madder  and  Gamboge. 

IK  BRICK  WORK. — Mix  Ochre  with  French  Blue  and  Indian 
Red,  Indigo  and  Venetian  Red,  Ochre  and  Pink  Madder  for 
bright  part  of  brick  work.  When  the  color  is  more  of  red,  Ver- 
milion may  be  used,  with  caution,  and  in  small  quantities  for 
lights.  For  shades,  mix  Sepia  and  Purple  Lake,  or  Sepia  and 
Indian  Red ;  Sepia  alone  is  used  for  light  shadows  from  trees. 

We  will  now  paint  a  landscape,  the  foreground  composed  of 
rocks  lying  near  and  dividing  a  stream  of  water  from  a  road  ; 
the  margin  of  the  river  skirted  by  trees ;  beyond  a  range  of  hills, 
and  still  beyond  another  range  of  mountains  with  high  points 
extending  above  all  else ;  cattle  standing  at  the  foot ;  flock  of 
sheep  coming  along  the  road,  cottage,  etc. 

Direction.  Cover  the  entire  surface  of  your  board  with  a 
tint  of  Yellow  Ochre  of  moderate  strength ;  when  this  is  dry  a 
tint  is  formed  from  the  mixture  of  Cobalt  Blue  and  Pink  Mad- 
der, the  blue  predominating ;  use  it  in  a  very  diluted  state,  on 
the  side  whence  the  sun  is  supposed  to  shine,  graduating  the  tint 
as  the  opposite  part  of  the  sky  is  approached,  so  that  the  ether 
may  appear  of  a  clear  and  rather  strong  color ;  the  lights  of  the 
cloud  to  be  left,  and  care  to  be  taken  to  diminish  the  strength 
of  the  tint  in  the  lower  part  of  the  sky.  The  same  tint  may  be 
carried  over  the  mountains,  leaving  small,  brilliant  lights  if  there 
be  any. 

A  wash  of  Pink  Madder  and  Ochre,  or  Venetian  Red  and  Ochre 
may  be  given  to  the  lights  on  the  clouds,  afterwards  they  may 
receive  their  middle  tint,  composed  of  Pink  Madder,  Yellow 
Qphre  and  Cobalt  Blue, 


WATER  COLORS.  41 

THE  CLOUDS  may  be  finished  by  shading  with  Cobalt  Blue  and 
Venetian  Red  ;  the  water  should  receive  its  tints  at  this '  time ; 
any  very  bright  lights  should  be  left.  Clouds  that  are  darker 
than  the  ether,  lay  on  with  Venetian  Red  and  Ochre.  If  the 
clouds  are  meant  to  show  lighter  than  the  blue  of  the  sky,  they 
should  be  left.  Mix  in  one  dish  Ochre  and  Pink  Madder  with 
more  strength  than  the  sky  tints ;  and  in  another  Cobalt,  Pink 
Madder  and  Gamboge,  with  as  much  strength  as  possible,  so  that 
it  will  work  freely.  Having  the  brush  charged  with  the  first 
paint,  proceed  to  lay  in  the  light  parts  of  the  mountains,  varying 
the  color  by  the  addition  of  Cobalt  Blue  where  a  greenish  line  is 
wanted,  Pink  Madder  where  the  granite  prevails.  Now,  with  a 
brush  filled  from  the  other  saucer,  lay  in  the  shady  parts,  varying 
the  colors.  These  opposite  tints  of  light  and  shade  should  be 
made  to  blend  imperceptibly  where  they  meet.  Indigo,  Pink 
Madder  and  Gamboge,  mixed,  will  be  found  useful  for  dark 
touches  in  shadows,  and  Cobalt  mixed  with  Indian  Red  may  be 
used  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  lights. 

FOR  THE  HILLS,  mix  Indigo  and  Yellow  Ochre,  so  as  to  make 
a  light  green ;  lay  in  the  light  parts  with  this,  adding  Ochre 
when  a  brighter  and  warmer  light  is  to  be  expressed,  and  Pink 
Madder  when  the  surface  is  broken  by  rock.  Any  bright  pro- 
jecting rocks  may  receive  a  touch  of  Yellow  Ochre  and  Indian 
Red,  mixed.  A  few  broad  touches  will  bring  this  sufficiently 
forward ;  they  may  be  given  with  a  brown,  produced  by  the 
mixture  of  Indigo,  Purple  Lake  and  Gamboge,  inclining  to  Or- 
ange or  Purple. 

THE  TREES,  skirting  the  stream,  should  be  covered  at  the 
same  time  with  the  first  and  lightest  tint,  varied  in  the  same 
Avay  and  brought  into  the  water,  leaving  a  sharp  strip  of  light 
at  the  edge  for  a  bank  or  path.  Any  very  light  stems  of  trees 
should  be  left.  When  this  has  become  quite  dry  lay  in  the  trees 
with  Gamboge,  Burnt  Sienna  and  Indigo,  mixed,  for  the  light ; 
Purple  Lake,  mixed  with  Indigo  and  Gamboge,  for  stems; 
stronger  and  browner  for  dark  touches.  The  rocky  masses  lying 


42  WATER  COLORS. 

in  the  water  near  the  promontory  may  be  covered  by  a  tint  of 
Indigo  and  Brown  Madder,  mixed ;  a  little  Olive  Green  will  vary 
the  tint,  if  a  greenish  hue  is  wanted.  Gamboge,  mixed  with  In- 
digo to  a  light  green,  and  varied  with  Purple  Lake  and  Indigo, 
will  serve  for  the  parts  of  the  rising  ground  seen  through  the 
branches  of  the  trees,  which  may  receive  a  tint  of  Indigo  mixed 
with  Burnt  Sienna  and  Olive  Green. 

THE  FOREGROUND  may  be  laid  in  with  Indian  Red,  mixed 
with  Yellow  Ochre,  and  broken  by  Sepia  or  Indigo;  shadows 
across  the  road  may  be  rendered  by  washes  of  Indigo  mixed  with 
Brown  Madder,  and  Lampblack  mixed  with  Purple  Lake  for 
cool  slate  colored  rocks  in  shade. 

Birch  trees  should  be  covered  with  a  tint  of  Indian  Yellow 
and  Burnt  Sienna,  and  shaded  with  Brown  Madder  and  Indigo 

*  O 

mixed,  or  Sepia  and  Purple  Lake.  Bring  out  the  stems  by  dark 
touches  of  Vandyke  Brown  mixed  with  Purple  Lake,  in  shade. 
The  dark  greens  about  the  foreground  should  be  composed  of 
Sepia  and  Indian  Yellow.  The  figures  in  the  landscape  may 
have  some  red  in  the  drapery ;  the  sheep,  a  little  Yellow  Ochre. 
In  mixing  the  colors  always  incline  towards  warmth,  because  a 
little  more  coolness  and  atmosphere  may  be  given  by  a  wash  of 
Cobalt  Blue  mixed  with  Pink  Madder  or  Indian  Red.  Reflections 
in  water  should  be  painted  similar  in  hue  to  the  objects,  but 
lower  in  tone  and  more  transparent.  Large  stems  of  trees  may 
be  colored  effectively  by  applying  varied  greys,  browns  (made 
by  a  mixture  of  Indian  Red,  French  Blue  and  Ochre),  for  light 
sides,  leaving  any  very  bright  features  shown  in  the  bark.  Brown 
Madder  and  Brown  Pink,  and  sometimes  Vandyke  Brown  mixed 
with  Indian  Lake,  will  be  found  of  service  for  markings.  When 
laying  on  the  blue  in  the  sky,  be  careful  to  leave  the  shape  of 
the  light  parts  of  the  clouds,  then  with  another  brush  wash  in 
the  middle  tint  and  suffer  it  to  blend  with  the  blue  on  the  shady 
side  of  the  cloud.  Add  a  little  Venetian  Red,  as  the  tint  is  car- 
ried down  to  the  horizon ;  mix  more  Cobalt  for  distance.  Give 
a  first  color  to  the  road  and  cottage ;  pure  Yellow  Ochre  for  the 


WATER  COLORS.  43 

light  of  the  plaster,  with  white  paper  left,  and  with  very  small 
portions ;  the  shade,  Sepia  or  Brown  Madder,  mixed  with  Indigo ; 
the  hedge  by  the  cottage,'  brown-pink,  olive-green,  mixed  with 
Burnt  Sienna. 

WHEN  THE  DRAWING  is  DRY,  begin  with  the  sky,  and 
heighten  or  subdue  as  seems  best ;  give  the  shade  to  the  clouds, 
taking  care  that  the  indications  of  shadow,  and  feature  gener- 
ally, grow  lighter  the  nearer  they  come  to  the  horizon ;  the  coun- 
try is  distinguished  from  the  sky  by  outline — a  dark  touch  of 
blue  in  the  shadows,  from  the  clouds.  Dark  touches  on  the  roof, 
chimneys  and  windows  of  the  cottage,  will  give  it  relief  from 
the  sky,  and  give  distance  to  the  small  objects ;  they  may  be 
made  with  Vandyke  Brown,  mixed  with  Purple  Lake.  Brown- 
pink,  mixed  with  Purple  Lake,  gives  a  very  dark  transparency  to 
water. 

FOR  MOONLIGHT  SCENES,  wash  in  the  general  effect  of  sky 
with  Burnt  Umber,  mixed  with  Cobalt  Blue  and  Pink  Madder, 
and  Cobalt  Blue  for  dark  clouds  and  distances ;  Indigo,  mixed 
with  Vandyke  Brown  and  Pink  Madder,  for  the  general  land- 
scape. The  learner,  before  commencing  at  once  upon  a  land- 
scape, will  do  well  to  practice  upon  blending  colors ;  commenc- 
ing with  Cobalt  Blue  and  Pink  Madder  you  will  produce  a  pur- 
ple ;  add  Gamboge,  the  purple  will  be  grey,  etc.  In  the  combi- 
nation of  the  following  colors,  a  great  variety  of  tones  adapted 
to  skies  and  distance  may  be  found :  Sepia  and  Gamboge,  Sepia 
and  Indian  Yellow,  Sepia  and  Italian  Pink,  Lampblack  and  In- 
dian Yellow.  Chinese  White  is  of  service  when  tinted  paper  is 
used  for  sketches. 

IN  SELECTING  THE  PAPER  it  should  be  as  natural  as  pos- 
sible, either  cool  or  warm  in  hue,  according  to  the  effect 
intended.  The  tint  may  serve  as  middle  tint  in  light  of  build- 
ings, stems  of  trees,  banks,  etc.  Cold  pressed  imperial  paper  is 
the  best  for  landscape.  There  are  several  other  kinds  of  paper 
which  are  used,  such  as  Whatman's  extra  thick,  of  140  Ibs.  to 
the  ream ;  or  Creswick  paper,  if  white ;  or  pale  cream  color,  are 


44 


WATER  COLORS. 


good  ;  but  if  much  opaque  color  is  used  in  the  picture,  any  com- 
mon paper  will  do,  especially  if  of  a  warm  grey  or  brownish 
color ;  and  very  good  pictures  are  painted  on  the  ordinary  brown 
paper  used  for  wrapping.  The  most  convenient  form  of  paper 
for  sketching  in  the  outlines  of  a  scene  is  that  made  up  in 
blocks  or  tablets. 

BRUSHES  should  come  to  a  fine  point  of  their  own  accord,  and 
not  bulge  out  in  the  middle.  Sables  are  the  best  for  general  use. 
The  brushes  necessary  are  two  or  three  red  Sable,  or  goose  quill 
size,  and  a  black  Sable  of  large  swan-quill  size  for  flat  washes ; 
or  where  these  are  too  high  price  for  the  beginner,  a  large 
swan-quill  French  camel's  hair  with  good  points.  Do  not  allow 
the  color  to  dry  on  them,  or  they  are  spoiled  ;  but  wash  as  soon 
as  used  and  allow  them  to  dry  with  the  hair  in  its  natural  posi- 
tion. 

OTHER  MATERIALS,  such  as  a  drawing-board,  a  sponge,  an 
HH  pencil  for  outlining,  India-rubber,  a  sharp  penknife  for  mix- 
ing up  opaque  colors  with  Chinese  White,  a  tin  water-bottle  to 
hold  water  when  sketching,  prepared  ox-gall  to  use  in  small 
quantities  where  the  paper  is  greasy  or  woolly,  a  quill  pen,  will 
also  be  found  useful. 

THE    COLORS    USED    ARE    Indigo,   French 
Blue,    Cobalt    Blue,    Purple    Lake,    Indian 
Red,  Indian  Lake,  Pink  Madder, 
Indian   Yellow,  Gamboge,  Yellow 
Ochre, Vandyke  Brown,  Brown  Mad- 
der, Sepia,  Burnt  Sienna,  Venetian 
Red,  Olive  Green,  Brown  Pink,  Ver- 
milion.   One  of  the  principal  points 
in  which  water-color 
painting  differs  from 
oil,  is  the  laying  on 
of  the  flat  tints  by 
means  of  washes. 


THE  ART  DF 

LANDSCAPE  PAINTING 


I  N 


OIL  COLORS. 

TECHNICAL  NAMES  AND  MATERIALS  USED.    MIXING  OF 
TINTS,  AND  HOW  TO  APPLY  THEM. 


o  doubt  you  are  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  Drawing  and  Perspective  at  the 
>time  you  reach  this  branch  of  art  work,  as  to  be  able 
to  apply  them  with  facility  and  certainty  to  the  rep- 
resentation, in  outline,  of  a  given  view  or  subject. 
The  rules  here  laid  down  will  place  within  your  reach  the 
power  of  securing  to  yourself  one  of  the  most  delightful  and 
agreeable  of  accomplishments. 

In  the  production  of  a  painting  in  Oil  Colors,  there  are  certain 
modes  of  operation,  in  introducing  a  beginner  to  the  practice  of 
the  art,  the  operations  are  distinguished  by  the  technical  names 
of  glazing,  impasting,  scrambling,  and  handling. 

A  GLAZE  is  a  thin  transparent  film  of  color,  laid  upon  another 
color  to  modify  the  tone,  or  to  aid  the  effect  of  the  latter,  the 
work  thereby  appearing  distinctly  through  the  layer  of  glaze, 
from  which  it  receives  a  characteristic  hue.  This  process  of 
glazing  is  effected  by  diluting  proper  transparent  color  with 
megilp,  or  other  suitable  vehicle.  Thus  diluted,  these  colors  are 


46  LANDSCAPE   PAINTING   IX  OIL  COLORS. 

laid  upon  portions  of  the  work,  either  in  broad  flat  tints,  or  in 
touches,  partially  and  judiciously  distributed.  The  object  is  to 
strengthen  shadows,  and  give  warmth  or  coldness  to  their  Inn-,  to 
subdue  lights  that  are  unduly  obtrusive,  or  to  give  additional 
color  and  tone  to  those  that  are  deficient  in  force  and  richness. 

IMPASTING.  In  oil  painting,  the  dark  shadows,  or  dark  por- 
tions of  the  picture,  are  painted  thinly,  Arhile  the  lights  arc  hud 
on,  or  " impasted,"  with  a  full  pencil  and  a  stiff  color.  In  the 
lights  of  the  foreground,  and  of  parts  not  intended  to  1x3  remote 
or  to  "retire,"  the  impasting  should  be  bold  and  free  ;  while  in 
the  more  brilliant  lights  it  cannot  well  be  too  solid.  The  palette 
knife  has  always  been  a  favorite  instrument  of  this  ••impasting," 
or  laying  on  of  color,  capable  as  it  is  of  producing  an  agreeable 
brightness  on,  and  of  giving  an  appropriate  flatness  to,  the  pig- 
ment. A  clear  and  appropriate  tint,  skillfully  swept  across  a  sky 
by  these  means,  often  produce  a  brilliant  and  charming  effect 
which  is  surprising. 

SCKUMBLING,  the  opposite  process  to  that  of  glazing,  is  done 
by  going  lightly  over  the  work  with  an  opaque  tint,  generally 
produced  by  an  admixture  of  white.  For  this  purpose  ;i  hog- 
hair  brush  is  used,  charged  with  color  but  sparingly,  and  with  it 
the  tints  are  drawn  very  thinly,  and  somewhat  loosely,  over  the 
previous  painting,  which  should,  as  in  the  case  of  glazing,  be  dry 
and  firm. 

The  judicious  combination  of  glazing  and  scrumbling  will 
produce  richness,  brilliancy  and  transparency. 

HANDLING.  By  "handling"  is  meant  the  mechanical  use  of 
the  pencil  or  brush,  exhibiting  the  artist's  power  of  adopting  cer- 
tain modes  and  processes  in  the  expression  and  representation  of 
the  different  textures  of  objects,  such  as  foliage,  wood,  water,  etc. 

Light.  The  position  of  a  painter  at  his  easel  should  be  such 
that  his  work  may  receive  the  light  from  his  left,  falling  upon  it 
only  from  the  upper  part  of  the  window  of  his  room,  the  lower 


LANDSCAPE   PAINTING  IN  OIL  COLORS. 


47 


part  being  darkened  by  a  piece  of  green  baize.  A  light  proceed- 
ing from  the  north  is  the  best,  it  being  most  uniform  through 
the  day. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  painting  a  landscape  is  to  select 
a  canvas  of  moderate  size,  let  the  design  be  drawn  upon  it  with 
a  firm  and  well  defined  outline.  This  being  done,  tint  the  lower 
part  of  the  canvas  in  a  clear,  warm  tone  with  a  mixture  of  Yel- 


low Ochre  and  Venetian  Red,  or  with  a  pale  hue  of  Burnt  Sienna, 
in  water  colors,  mixed  with  a  little  ox-gall  to  make  it  adhere  to 
the  oil  ground. 

The  upper,  or  sky  part  of  the  canvas,  being  left  clear,  com- 
mence the  work  lightly  about  where  the  horizon  will  appear,  and 
gradually  strengthen  the  tint  as  you  descend.  The  sketch  being 
laid  in,  the  painting  of  the  picture  may  now  be  commenced. 


48  LAxnscAPh;  PAINTINC   IN  mi,  COLORS. 

Have  near  your  easel  a  slab  of  ground  glass,  on  which  you  can 
prepare  your  tints  to  a  proper  consistency  or  hue.  A  set  of  tints, 
of  the  hue  of  the  sky,  and  for  the  distances,  is  now  mixed,  and 
you  commence  with  the  blue  of  the  sky,  working  downwards,  and 
securing  a  proper  gradation  of  color ;  then  follow  the  distances, 
mountains,  &c.  This  being  done,  the  work  is  left  to  dry.  The 
mode  of  applying  the  color  to  the  canvas  is  chiefly  by  touches,  or 
pats  of  the  brush  in  succession,  from  left  to  right.  The  color 
should  be  tempered  with  a  proper  quantity  of  vehicle,  that  it  may 
work  crisply,  and  above  all,  that  it  may  be  laid  sparingly  upon 
the  canvas. 

Short  hair  brushes  are  best  adapted  to  painting  with  little 
color.  In  laying  on,  or  "impasting"  the  lights,  the  brushes 
should  be  rather  longer  than  those  used  for  general  painting — 
such  a  brush  will  yield  the  color  more  readily.  Unless  the  colors 
be  allowed  to  harden  between  the  first  and  second  painting,  also 
between  the  second  and  third,  they  will  be  liable  to  be  rubbed 
off  by  the  application  of  the  oils  and  glazing  used  in  the  after 
painting. 

When  the  first  painting  is  dry,  the  picture  should  have  a  damp 
cloth  passed  over  its  surface.  Being  then  wiped  dry,  let  it  be 
rubbed  over  with  a  small  portion  of  noppy  oil,  for  this  makes  the 
after  painting  unite  with  the  first.  It  is  a  mere  moistening  of 
the  surface  that  is  required — no  excess  of  oil  to  remain.  All  that 
is  not  necessary  should  be  removed  by  the  moderate  application 
of  a  piece  of  silk  or  linen. 

In  the  second  painting  we  advance  by  giving  more  attention 
to  the  details  of  various  objects ;  their  drawing,  light  and  shade, 
reflected  hues,  and  various  tints  in  coloring  are  more  elaborately 
made  out ;  the  relative  distances  of  objects  from  the  eye  are  most 
carefully  preserved,  and  the  shadows,  which  are  yet  painted 
thinly  and  transparently,  are  carefully  united,  with  half -tints,  so 
as  to  produce  a  roundness. 

The  third,  or  finished  painting,  is  commenced  by  wiping  and 
oiling  the  picture  in  the  manner  before  described  as  necessary 


LANDSCAPE  PAINTING  IN  OIL  COLORS.  49 

for  tbe  second  painting.  We  then  proceed  to  complete  the  de- 
tails of  form  and  color,  which  Avere  brought  forward  in  the 
former  painting,  employing  for  this  purpose  delicate  touches  of 
glazing  and  scrambling  alternately,  not  to  conceal,  b^^t  improve 
and  render  as  perfect  as  possible  what  has  already  been  done. 
Sharp,  vigorous  touches  where  the  markings  of  the  details  require 
them.  These  touches  must  be  made  with  freedom  and  decision, 
or  they  fail  in  producing  the  desired  effect.  They  should  be  of 
a  warm  tone,  not  cold — not  grey.  In  this  stage  of  the  work  do 
not  attempt  too  much  at  one  sitting.  It  is  best  to  allow  the  colors 
to  dry  gently,  and  to  repeat  the  operation  when  necessary. 

Lastly,  a  mode  of  aiding  the  finish  is  by  passing  over  a  portion 
of  the  work  with  light,  delicate  tones,  which  are  left  only  on  the 
projecting  touches  of  texture  objects. 


MATERIALS    USED. 

Many  of  the  pigments  which  change  color  by  the  action  of  im- 
pure air,  and  are,  therefore,  useless  in  water-color  painting,  may, 
nevertheless,  be  safely  used  in  oil  painting ;  for  this  reason :  In 
water  color  the  powder  colors  are  mixed  with  only  just  enough  of 
some  binding  cement  (called  a  vehicle),  such  as  gum,  size,  sugar, 
etc.,  to  prevent  their  being  easily  rubbed  off  the  paper,  and  are, 
therefore,  freely  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  or  of 
the  colors  with  which  they  may  be  mixed  ;  but  in  oil  colors  the 
powder  colors  are  ground  up  in  oil,  so  prepared  as  to  oxidise 
rapidly  in  the  air  into  a  kind  of  impermeable  leathery  resin, 
which,  completely  enveloping  each  particle  of  color,  effectiially 
protects  it,  not  only  from  the  action  of  impure  air,  but  also  of 
neighboring  particles  of  different  colors.  And  it  thus  happens 
that  pigments  may  be  used  in  oils  with  tolerable  safety  which  in 
water  color  might  turn  black  in  a  few  days.  Indeed,  the  white 
which  we  invariably  use  in  oils — flake  white — is  certainly  one  of 
the  most  unstable  of  colors  in  water  colors ;  and  nearly  the  same 


50  LANDSCAPE  PAINTING   IN  OIL  COLORS. 

may  be  said  of  the  chrome  yellow,  Naples  yellow,  emerald  green, 
etc. 
The  colors  named  below  will  be  found  a  useful  set : 

Flake  White,  Lamp  Black*  Cobalt  Blue, 

Ultramarine,  Cappagh  Brown,  Madder  Brown* 

Prussian  Blue,  Raw  Sienna,  Burnt  Sienna, 

Yellow  Ochre,  Cadmium  Yellow*  Pale  Cadmium  Yellow* 

Carmine  (in  Powder)*  Eose  Madder*  Indian  Yellow* 

Indian  Red,  Emerald  Green* 

The  colors  marked  with  an  asterisk  do  not  dry  quickly,  except 
when  mixed  with  much  flake-white.  To  these  it  is  necessary  to 
add  a  very  little  drier — a  mixture  of  sugar  of  lead  and  boiled 
oil. 

BRUSHES. — After  the  colors,  the  brushes  are  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  artist's  materials.  Flat  hog's-hair  brushes  are 
the  most  useful  for  general  purposes.  These  should  have  pol- 
ished handles,  and  the  hairs  should  not  straggle  at  the  point, 
but  keep  together,  so  as  to  form  a  straight,  thin  edge.  The 
small  sizes  are  most  convenient  when  made  very  short  and  very 
thin  in  the  hair,  it  being  difficult  to  make  the  long-haired  ones 
keep  together  at  the  point.  For  fine  touches,  sable  brushes  are 
the  most  convenient,  some  flat  and  some  round ;  the  former 
thin  and  short-haired,  the  latter  coming  to  a  fine  point. 

Badger's-hair  softeners  are  used,  as  their  name  implies,  to 
soften  broad  tints  in  skies,  etc.,  but  require  the  greatest  caution 
in  their  use,  or  they  will  certainly  produce  a  disagreeable  "  wool- 
liness,"  or  smudginess.  They  are  made  with  the  hair  radiating, 
or  spreading  out,  towards  the  point,  and  are  used  by  dabbing  or 
jobbing  them  lightly  over  the  work,  and  should  always  be  used 
clean  and  dry. 

The  brushes  should  always  be  cleaned  as  soon  as  they  are  done 
with  for  the  day.  The  easiest  way  is  to  rinse  them  in  a  little 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and,  after  drying  them  on  a  rag,  wash 
them  out  clean  by  rubbing  them  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  with 
thick  soap  and  water,  and  then  rinsing  them  in  clean  water,  and 
allowing  them  to  dry  with  the  hair  in  its  proper  position.  It 


LANDSCAPE    PAINTING   IN   OIL   COLORS.  51 

happens  sometimes  that,  leaving  off  in  a  hurry,  one  has  no  time 
to  wash  out  the  brushes  carefully.  In  that  case  they  may  be 
laid  by  for  a  few  days,  dirty  as  they  are,  with  their  ends  under 
water.  The  paint  will  keep  under  water  Arithout  drying. 

CANVAS. — This  is  the  best  material  for  painting  upon.  It  is 
sold  ready  stretched  on  frames,  and  is  kept  of  all  sizes  at  the  art- 
ists' color  warehouses. 

PREPARED  PAPER  is  perhaps  the  most  convenient  material  for 
the  beginner,  occupying  so  very  little  space  when  the  picture  is 
dry.  It  must  be  fastened,  when  in  use,  to  a  board  by  means  of 
drawing-pins.  It  is  also  kept  bound  up  into  blocks,  like  those 
used  for  water-color  sketching,  and  this  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
convenient  form  in  which  to  buy  it,  though  not  the  cheapest. 

MILLHOAIIDS  seem  to  me  to  possess  no  advantage  over  paper, 
and  are  very  heavy,  and  liable  to  break  at  the  corners. 

PANELS  are  heavy  and  rather  bulky,  but  are  peculiarly  well 
adapted  for  works  requiring  high  finish. 

PALETTES  are  usually  made  of  mahogany  or  satin  wood.  The 
latter  are  the  best,  the  colors  being  better  seen  on  the  lighter  col- 
ored wood.  The  rectangular  shape  is  the  most  convenient,  and 
packs  best  into  the  lid  of  a  "color-box.  A  wooden  palette  should 
have  plenty  of  raw  linseed  oil  rubbed  into  it  before  being  used, 
and  be  allowed  to  dry.  This  will  prevent  the  colors  sinking  into 
the  wood  and  staining. 

A  DIPPER  is  a  small  tin  cup  made  to  fix  by  sliding  on  to  the 
palette,  to  contain  oil,  turpentine,  varnish,  or  any  other  vehicle 

used. 

THE  REST  STICK  is  used  to  rest  the  right  hand  upon,  while 
painting  those  parts  of  the  picture  that  require  great  steadiness 
and  care.  It  should  be  as  stiff  and  as  light  as  possible,  and  is 
held  in  the  same  hand  as  the  palette. 


52  LANDSCAPE   PAINTING   IN  OIL  COLORS. 

PALETTE-KNIVES  arc  necessary  implements  for  mixing  and 
manipulating  the  colors  on  the  palette.  It  is  convenient  to  have 
two  of  different  stiffness. 

EASELS  are  inconvenient  usually  in  proportion  to  their  cheap- 
ness. They  should  be  tolerably  firm  and  heavy,  and  should 
allow  the  picture  to  be  raised  easily  and  quickly. 

VEHICLE  is  the  diluent  used  to  temper  and  thin  the  colors  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  them  to  a  proper  state.  Linseed  oil, 
rendered  drying  by  boiling  with  certain  metallic  oxides,  is  the 
vehicle  generally  used.  Drying  oil  should  dry  quite  free  from 
stickiness  in  two  or  three  days,  in  ordinary  weather.  Copal  var- 
nish is  also  an  excellent  vehicle,  but  dries  so  rapidly  that  it  will 
not  do  where  the  colors  require  considerable  manipulation  with 
the  brush — as  in  skies  and  broad  tints  generally.  Colors  used 
with  varnish  will  require  frequent  thinning  with  spirit  of  turpen^ 
tine.  Megilp  is  a  most  pleasant  vehicle  to  use ;  so  pleasant,  in- 
deed, that  one  is  apt  to  use  far  too  much  of  it.  It  is  made  by 
mixing  strong  mastic  varnish  with  drying  oil. 

The  beginner  should  bear  in  mind  that  all  oils  and  varnishes 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  turn  dark  brown  with  age,  and  should 
therefore  learn  to  use  as  little  as  possible ;  indeed,  the  colors,  as 
generally  sold,  are  ground  with  sufficient  oil  for  use  with  a  hog's- 
hair  brush ;  and  it  is  only  where  greater  freedom  is  required, 
and  when  using  sable  brushes,  that  an  addition  of  vehicle  is  of 
use.  It  is  absolutely  necessary,  however,  in  the  process  called 
"glazing,"  which  is  where  a  transparent  color  is  rubbed  thinly 
over  parts  of  the  picture,  the  general  tone  or  color  of  which  it  is 
desirable  to  modify.  And  in  this  case,  too,  as  little  vehicle  as 
possible  should  be  employed. 


LANDSCAPE   PAINTING   IN   OIL  COLORS  53 

MIXED  TINTS. 

The  following  are  given  as  examples  of  some  of  the  tints  that 
may  be  obtained  by  mixture  of  the  more  important  colors. 

Rose  Madder  and  Cobalt,  With  these  colors  a  variety  of  del- 
icate tints  of  great  purity  and  permanence  may  be  produced ;  of 
general  use  in  distances,  skies,  water,  etc. 

Yellow  Ochre,  Rose  Madder,  and  Cobalt.  Being  made  up  of 
the  three  primaries,  are  duller  or  greyer,  but  will  produce  a 
greater  variety.  Of  use  in  distances,  middle  distance,  etc. 

Vandyke  Brown  and  Cobalt,  Brown  Madder  and  Cobalt. 
Of  use  in  the  same  cases  as  the  last.  Good  for  middle  distance 
foliage. 

Yellow  Ochre  and  Orange  Vermilion.  Of  great  use  in  obtain- 
ing warm,  sunny  effects  in  distances,  skies,  clouds,  and  for  bril- 
liant tints  in  foregrounds.  Will  give  beautiful  flesh  tints  with 
Chinese  white. 

Yellow  Ochre  and  Prussian  Blue.  Pleasant,  cool,  greyish- 
greens  may  be  produced  with  these  colors ;  especially  useful  in 
middle  distance  trees.  May  be  saddened  with  black  or  Vandyke 
brown 

Rose  Madder  and  Prussian  Blue.  A  variety  of  useful  and 
permanent  sober  greys  and  purples  may  be  thus  obtained.  Of 
great  use  in  cloudy  skies  and  distances,  etc. 

Vandyke  Brown  and  Prussian  Blue.  Useful  in  the  same 
cases  as  yellow  ochre  and  Prussian  blue. 

Vandyke  Brown  and  Yellow  Ochre.  Gives  good  tints  for 
earth,  etc.,  in  foregrounds. 

Vandyke  Brown  and  Gamboge,  Vandyke  Brown,,  Gamboge, 
and  Prussian  Blue.  Give  colors  of  the  greatest  use  for  fore- 
ground and  middle  distance  foliage. 

Burnt  Sienna  and  Carmine,  Gamboge  and  Burnt  Sienna. 
Warm,  rich,  transparent  colors.  Of  use  in  autumnal  foliage,  and 


54  I.AXDSCAI'i:    TAINTING   IN   OIL  COLORS. 

for  bright  tints  in  foregrounds,  such  as  the  shading  of  draperies, 
etc.,  and  cattle,  birds,  and  flowers ;  in  fact,  in  all  cases  where 
very  rich  transparent  color  is  required. 

Burnt  Sienna,  Gamboge,  and  Prussian  Blue.  Of  the  greatest 
use  for  foreground  and  middle  distance  foliage. 

Burnt  Sienna  and  Yellow  Ochre.  Useful  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  Vandyke  brown  and  yellow  ochre. 

fiaiv  /Sienna,  Carmine,  and  Prussian  Slue.  With  these  three 
colors  an  immense  number  of  beautiful  transparent  greys  and 
browns  may  be  obtained,  useful  in  all  kinds  of  foreground 
shadows. 

Burnt  Sienna  and  Cobalt.  For  distant  and  middle  distant 
foliage. 

Carmine  and  Prussian  Blue,  Carmine  and  French  Ultramarine. 
Whenever  brilliant  and  transparent  purples  of  great  depth  are 
required  in  foregrounds. 

Indian  Red  and  Cobalt,  Indian  Red  and  Prussian  Blue.  Use- 
ful in  the  same  cases  as  rose  madder  and  Prussian  blue. 

Raw  Sienna,  Madder  Lake,  and  Cobalt.  Give  quiet,  semi- 
transparent  greys  for  middle  distances,  cloudy  skies,  etc. 

Carmine  and  Gamboge.  For  transparent  deep  oranges  and 
reds  in  foregrounds. 

Emerald  Green  and  Gamboge.  May  be  sparingly  used  where 
very  bright  greens  are  required  in  foreground  foliage. 

Orange  Vermilion  and  Cadmium  Yellow.  Safe  colors  to  use 
for  all  very  vivid  oranges. 

Lamp  Black  and  Cobalt,  Lamp  Black  and  Gamboge.  Illus- 
trate the  use  of  lamp  black  in  saddening  other  colors.  The  moat 
beautiful  greys  may  be  thus  obtained.  Of  universal  use,  whether 
for  foregrounds,  distances,  or  skies. 


THE 

OIL-PHOTO  MINIATURE 


CALLED  BY  SOMB 


2N  the  photograph  you  desire  to  color  is  mounted  on 
a  card,  first  immerse  it  in  boiling  hot  water  This 
will  soften  the  paste,  and  in  a  short  time  the  print 
may  be  lifted  from  the  mount.  Do  not  hurry,  but  give 
the  print  a  thorough  soaking  before  trying  to  lift  it  from 
the  card,  and  always  use  great  care  to  avoid  tearing  the 
photograph.  Rinse  the  picture  in  cold  water  to  clean  it  from 
the  paste  and  coloring  matter  that  may  adhere  to  it  from  the 
card.  Let  it  remain  in  the  vessel  of  clear  water  until  ready 
for  mounting  on  the  glass.  Prepare  a  little  thin  starch  paste, 
as  follows.  Amylum  (Refined  Corn  Starch)  a  teaspoonful,  cold 
water  2  ounces,  or  nitrate  strontium  -J  ounce ;  stir  till  dissolved* 
then  bring  it  to  a  boil,  stirring  constantly. 

Have  the  starch  paste  thin  and  strain  it  through  fine  muslin. 
Having  cleaned  your  Convex  Glass  thoroughly  with  alcohol  and 
a  piece  of  cotton  batting,  take  the  photograph  and  blot  off  the 
surplus  water.  Paste  the  face  of  the  print  and  the  concave  or 
hollow  side  of  the  cleaned  glass  with  your  starch,  being  very 
careful  to  cover  both  the  print  and  glass  smoothly.  A  wide 
bristle  brush  is  most  suitable  for  this  work.  Lay  the  print  on 
the  glass,  the  prepared  surfaces  together,  and  proceed  carefully 
to  work  the  bubbles  out  with  your  fingers,  after  which  lay  two 


56  THE   OIL-PHOTO   MINIATURE. 

or  three  thicknesses  of  tissue  paper  on  the  print,  and  with  an 
ivory  paper-knife,  or  flat  stick,  with  curve  about  the  same  as  the 
concave  surface  of  the  glass,  work  the  print  down  to  the  glass, 
forcing  out  all  the  air.  Work  from  the  centre  of  the  glass 
toward  the  edges,  and  with  great  care,  using  very  light  pressure 
to  avoid  breaking  the  glass.  The  mounting  of  the  print  should 
be  done  quickly,  as  the  paste  dries  very  fast.  If  any  bubbles 
should  remain,  prick  them  through  with  a  fine-pointed  needle 
and  rub  over  with  the  ivory  knife.  After  mounting  the  picture 
on  the  glass  allow  it  to  dry  thoroughly.  Now  fill  the  concave 
or  hollow  side  of  the  glass  having  the  picture  on,  with  Castor 
Oil  three  parts,  Oil  Lavender  one  part.  Allow  the  oil  to  remain 
until  the  photograph  is  transparent ;  this  will  take  from  three  to 
twelve  hours.  When  perfectly  transparent,  pour  off  the  oil  and 
wipe  with  a  fine  sponge  until  nearly  dry.  Your  picture  is  now 
ready  for  painting. 

The  colors  applied  directly  to  the  photograph  are  those 
that  need  no  blending — such  as  the  eyes,  lips,  jewelry,  light  rib-, 
bons,  flower  ornaments  and  neck-tie.  Edges  of  ruffles  and  em- 
broidery should  also  be  touched  up  on  the  photograph.  When 
you  have  finished  coloring  the  picture  on  the  first  glass,  pour 
Glycerine  over  it,  being  careful  to  cover  the  surface  thoroughly. 
Dram  off  and  then  put  the  other  convex  glass  to  the  back  of 
the  one  having  the  print,  and  wedge  apart  from  it  by  attaching 
little  pieces  of  card-board  to  the  second  glass  with  mucilage. 

Have  the  wedges  very  narrow  and  close  to  the  edge.  This 
separates  the  glasses  and  keeps  the  upper  one  from  pressing  the 
oiled  and  painted  glass  below.  On  this  second  glass  you  will 
color  the  face  and  other  flesh,  hair,  drapery,  and,  if  necessary, 
the  background.  The  miniature,  is  finished  by  using  card -board 
to  back  up  the  picture,  white  being  very  effective. 

Bind  the  edges  of  the  glass  and  card-board  together  with 
strips  of  adhesive  paper. 

CAUTION!  Don't  use  Silver  Gloss  Starch;  it  will  not  do 
nearly  as  well  as  Corn  Starch. 


THE  OIL-PHOTO  MINIATURE.  57 


The  coloring  of  the  eyes,  lips,  jewelry,  ribbons,  edges  of  em- 
broidery, lace,  neck-tie,  flowers,  and  other  ornaments,  is  applied 
directly  on  the  photograph  after  it  is  mounted  on  the  glass  and 
made  translucent  with  the  oil. 

EYES — Use  small  brush.  BLUE  EYES — Use  Prussian  Blue 
mixed  with  little  Ivory  Black.  BROWN  EYES — Use  Vandyke 
Brown.  GREY  OR  HAZEL  EYES — Prussian  Blue  mixed  with 
Vandyke  Brown  and  Silver  White. 

LIPS— Use  Rose  Madder. 

JEWELRY— Yellow  Ochre  for  Gold,  Silver  White  for  Pearls, 
Emerald  Green  for  Emeralds,  Rose  Madder  for  Rubies. 

RIBBONS — Whatever  color  is  required.  Flowers  and  other 
ornaments  the  same. 

The  color  for  Flesh,  Hair,  Drapery  and  Background  is  applied 
to  the  concave  surface  of  the  clear  glass  which  is  placed  over 
the  mounted  print. 

FLESH — Use  Vermilion,  Silver  White  and  Chrome  Yellow ; 
mix  to  suit.  For  children  use  Rose  Madder  or  Carmine  in  place 
of  Vermilion.  For  dark  complexions  dull  the  color  by  adding 
Vandyke  Brown. 

HAIR — For  blonde  hair, use  half  Naples  Yellow  and  Vandyke 
Brown.  For  lights,  use  Naples  Yellow.  Brown  Hair,  Vandyke 
Brown.  Black  Hair,  Ivory  Black  and  Silver  White,  adding  a 
little  Prussian  Blue.  For  Grey  Hair,  use  Silver  White,  Naples 
Yellow,  Black,  Burnt  Sienna,  and  a  little  Prussian  Blue. 

DRAPERY— Whatever  color  suits. 

BACKGROUND — Your  own  judgment  will  suggest  the  proper 
color  to  use. 

If  you  want  to  change  the  work  in  any  way,  take  a  small 
piece  of  cloth,  dipped  in  turpentine,  and  remove  the  color. 

For  home  work  and  adornment  it  offers  special  attractions. 
The  photographs  of  relatives  and  friends  can  be  made  into 


58  THE  OIL-PHOTO  MINIATURE. 

Oil-Photo  Miniatures,  done  by  your  own  hands,  and  handsomely 
furnished  for  the  mantel  and  wall  at  small  expense. 

We  have  given  you  the  simplest  and  best  process  for  making 
the  picture.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  when  the  oil  is  used  it 
dries  out  after  a  time,  and  produces  opaque  spots.  Should  this 
trouble  appear,  it  is  easily  overcome  by  using  glycerine  as  previ- 
ously directed.  "We  herewith  give  you  another  method  in  use, 
and  you  can  adopt  whichever  you  see  fit. 


SECOND  METHOD. 

IVORY-TYPE  OR  MEZZOTINT. 

FOB  MOUNTING  THE  PHOTOGRAPH. — Isin-glass  (fish  glue)  made 
in  the  following  proportion :  One  teaspoonf ul  to  half  cup  of 
water,  dissolved  by  boiling ;  strain  through  fine  muslin,  and  apply 
the  same  as  starch.  Pure  Albumen,  or  white  of  egg,  brushed 
over  the  glass  and  surface  of  the  photograph,  is  used  with  great 
success  by  some.  Equal  parts  Canada  balsam  and  turpentine  is 
also  used  for  attaching  the  print  to  the  glass.  Kubber  varnish, 
made  with  pure  rubber,  dissolved  in  benzole.  Some  add  a  little 
Cooper's  glue  to  the  starch  when  making  it.  Dextrine  is  a 
favorite  with  many. 

After  the  use  of  the  castor  oil,  castor  oil  and  glycerine,  poppy 
oil,  nut,  or  any  of  the  oils,  the  print  may  be  covered  with  a  coat- 
ing of  Damar  varnish,  which  it  is  claimed  holds  the  oil  and 
preserves  the  transparency.  Many  artists  after  oiling  or  var- 
nishing, use  water  colors  mixed  with  ox-gall  in  coloring  on  the 
back  of  the  print,  then  follow  with  the  oil  colors  as  directed.  In 
adopting  any  of  the  methods  herein  noted,  your  judgment  will 
dictate  care  in  observing  the  results,  and  suggesting  changes  that 
may  facilitate  the  work,  and  success  of  the  picture.  You  will 
find  this  art  very  attractive,  simple,  and  productive  of  both 
pleasure  and  profit.  Ladies  are  occupying  leisure  hours,  and 


THE   OIL  PHOTO   MiNIATUKE.  59 

making  home  attractive  with  their  artistic  work  in  producing 
the  Miniature. 

By  the  first  process  pictures  have  stood  for  years  without 
spotting  or  cracking. 

ANOTHER  PLAN  is :  After  cleaning  the  photograph,  blot  off 
the  surplus  water  and  place  it  in  alcohol,  let  it  remain  until 
transparent.  Old,  faded  pictures  can  be  brought  out  clear  in 
this  way.  After  placing  it  on  glass,  cover  the  print  with 
"paraffine,"  and  let  it  lie  for  a  short  time  in  the  sun,  until  crys- 
talized,  when  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  colors.  You  may  use 
water  colors  on  the  first  glass  with  good  effect. 

'•  By  this  simple  process  any  person  unaccustomed  to  painting, 
and  ignorant  of  art,  may  color  photographs,  and  produce  with 
rapidity  and  little  trouble,  effective,  permanent,  and  beautiful 
pictures,  so  soft  and  delicate  as  to  closely  resemble  painting  on 
enamel ;  may  render  the  treasured  family  portrait  doubly  valua- 
ble by  adding  the  warm  tints  of  life  to  the  faithful  but  cold  and 
deathlike  production  of  the  photographer,  and  produce  a  pleasing 
as  well  as  a  truthful  representation.  The  largest  and  the  smallest 
work  may  be  painted  with  equal  facility,  the  life-size  portrait  or 
a  miniature  for  a  locket,  the  only  qualification  for  success,  even 
in  very  elaborate  pictures,  being  taste  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
colors.  An  objection  to  coloring  photographs,  as  coloring  has 
hitherto  been  practiced — that  the  delicate  truthfulness  of  nature's 
drawing  was  injured,  and  sometimes  a  likeness  wholly  destroyed, 
through  being  obscured  by  the  colorist  in  the  working,  that  the 
only  guarantee  of  fidelity  was  the  talent  of  the  artist — in  the 
beautifully  simple  process  under  consideration  with  which  all 
the  softness,  lights,  and  shadows  of  the  photographs  are  pre- 
served." 


TZHZIE 


OIF1 


f  COLORING  PHOTOGRAPHS 


ELECT  a  well-defined  Photograph,  one  of  light  color 
is  preferable,  and  the  background  free  from  spots ; 
it  is  also  well  to  have  a  duplicate  copy  to  refer  to 
in  case  of  necessity — a  copy  of  two  different  sit- 
tings. Always  select  a  good  subject,  as  a  good 
portrait  depends  much  on  a  good  model.  In  sit- 
ting for  a  photograph,  take  your  own  natural  and 
easy  position  several  feet  in  front  of  the  back- 
ground, with  your  eyes  a  trifle  above  the  camera. 
Avoid  all  superfluous  surroundings,  such  as  fancy 
chairs,  table  covered  with  books  and  other  objects, 
making  your  face  a  secondary  affair  in  the  picture. 

Preparing  the  Photograph.  Take  a  piece  of  White  Glue 
about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut,  and  about  one-half  the  quantity 
of  pulverized  alum ;  dissolve  in  half  a  wine-glass  of  warm  water 
and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Apply  the  mixture  with  a  flat  camel- 
hair  brush  to  the  photograph  ;  cover  the  entire  face  of  the  pic- 
ture, care  being  taken  not  to  get  it  too  wet.  When  dry,  wash  it 
in  clean  cold  water  with  a  sponge  to  remove  any  superfluous 
matter  that  may  rest  upon  it.  It  may  be  necessary  to  go  over 


COLORING   PHOTOGRAPHS.  61 

it  a  second  time,  as  it  is  essential  that  the  paper  be  well  har- 
dened to  work  upon.  You  may  test,  it  by  applying  a  drop  of  the 
color  to  one  corner  and  if  it  washes  off  and  leaves  no  stain  the 
paper  is  in  good  condition  for  the  work.  Albumen  paper  can 
often  be  worked  without  using  this  preparation,  but  should  be 
sponged  off  with  cold  water. 

The  colors  used  are  in  cakes :  Dry  Carmine,  Rose  Madder, 
Crimson  Lake,  Venetian  Red,  Indian  Red,  Vermilion,  Chrome 
Yellow,  Indian  Yellow,  Roman  Ochre,  Gamboge,  Cobalt,  French 
Blue,  Emerald  Green,  Indigo,  Prussian  Blue,  Burnt  Sienna, 
Burnt  Umber,  Sepia  (Brown),  Vandyke  Brown,  Madder  Brown, 
Ivory  Black,  Chinese  White,  Constant  White. 

Burnt  Umber,  mostly  used  for  the  hair ;  Vandyke  Brown  is 
one  of  the  most  used  of  browns,  although  Sepia  may  be  said  to 
be  the  most  useful  in  black  silk  and  satin,  when  mixed  with 
Lake,  Indigo  and  Gamboge;  Sepia  and  Lake  for  the  eyebrows 
and  hair ;  Sepia  and  Indigo  form  a  gray,  very  nice  for  back- 
ground. Of  Red,  Carmine  is  the  most  brilliant ;  Rose  Madder 
the  most  useful  in  flesh,  especially  in  youths ;  in  elder  persons 
add  Vermilion;  Crimson  Lake  is  very  useful  for  flesh  tints; 
Light  Red,  Venetian  and  Indian  Red  can  be  used  for  nearly  the 
same  purpose. 

Coloring.  Commence  upon  the  face  with  the  flesh  tints, 
using  for  this  a  good  size  Sable  brush ;  go  over  the  entire  face 
and  wait  till  dry.  Use  for  the  lips  a  little  Vermilion  and  Lake. 
Now  go  over  the  background,  and  then  the  draperies.  Deepen 
the  Carnations,  touching  the  eye  and  mouth  with  Lake;  also 
the  hair  with  the  proper  color.  Touch  the  under  lip  with  Rose 
Madder  enough  so  as  it  may  look  natural.  The  white  of  the 
eye  in  youth  is  nearly  blue,  in  old  age  it  becomes  yellow,  in  mid- 
dle age  it  is  white.  Yon  must  vary  your  tints  to  correspond. 

The  iris  must  bo  laid  in  with  transparent  color,  then  shaded, 
then  finished  with  Chinese  White.  The  pupil  is  touched  with  a 
dark  color  and  the  speck  of  white  laid  on  last.  Use  the  same 
color  for  black  or  brown  as  used  for  the  hair,  viz. :  Light  Red 


(52  COLORING   PHOTOGRAPHS. 

and  Chinese  White,  and  neutral  or  Purple  tint  and  White  for 
the  latter.  The  face  is  now  nearly  finished ;  it  only  remains  to 
add  a  few  touches  to  the  eyes  and  mouth,  and  impart  life  and 
expression  to  the  countenance.  If  the  person  be  dark,  use  Se- 
pia and  Purple  Lake,  equal  proportions ;  but  if  fair,  dispense 
with  most  of  the  Sepia.  Next  complete  the  background,  after 
which  finish  up  the  hair  over  the  background;  after  the  last 
shaded  parts  of  the  hair  lay  on  the  high  lights.  Burnt  Umber 
is  most  useful  in  brown  and  auburn  hair ;  Indigo,  Sepia  and  Lake, 
or  Lake,  Indigo  and  Gamboge,  are  the  colors  used  for  high 
lights,  the  lights  inclining  to  a  purple  tint,  the  blue  pre- 
dominating. Keep  the  hair  in  masses;  a  good  sized  brush 
is  needed.  In  painting  cloth  fabrics  it  will  be  well  to  use 
the  local  color  at  first  very  light,  much  more  so  than  you 
desire  it  to  be  when  finished.  A  black  coat :  begin  by  laying  in 
a  weak  local  wash  as  directed,  and  when  it  is  dry  go  over  the 
folds  with  a  thin  shadow  color,  which  will  prevent  them  being 
obscured  by  the  next  local  wash.  Having  repeated  this  two  or 
three  times,  you  will  find  the  garment  to  be  as  dark  as  necessary, 
but  the  shadows  will  be  feeble ;  you  may  strengthen  them  with 
Sepia  and  Lake.  A  good  black  for  gentlemen's  drapery  is  made 
of  Indigo,  Lake  and  Gamboge.  When  a  blue-black  is  required, 
first  make  a  purple-blue  and  then  add  the  Gamboge  till  the  tint 
is  changed  into  black.  In  shadowing,  always  carry  your  pencil 
the  way  the  folds  run,  instead  of  across  them.  The  colors  for 
backgrounds  for  fair  people  are  blue,  purple  and  greys.  Dark 
complexions  should  have  dark  background.  Stone  is  represented 
by  a  tint  formed  of  Carmine,  Indigo  and  Yellow  Ochre,  and  the 
more  distant  you  wish  it  to  appear  the  more  must  the  Indigo 
prevail.  A  background  made  of  Cobalt,  Burnt  Sienna  and  a 
little  Rose  Madder  works  well.  Madder  Brown  and  Cobalt  an- 
swers for  the  same.  A  purple  cloudy  ground  is  made  of  Indigo 
and  liquid  Carmine  or  Lake.  An  opaque  ground,  of  a  choco- 
late color,  is  composed  of  Lampblack  and  India  Red. 

Paint  curtains  over  the  background  and  put  on  the  lights  with 
body  colors. 


RUSSIAN, 


OR 


EGYPTIAN  METHOD 


OF  COLORING  PHOTOGRAPHS 

WITH  TRANSPARENT  INDELIBLE  CDLDRS, 

THIS  is  the  "biggest  little  thing"  in  painting  that  probably  has 
ever  been  presented  to  amateur  artists.  For  beauty  of  ar- 
rangement, ease  and  simplicity  in  its  execution,  no  branch 
of  art  work  of  a  similar  nature  has  ever  met  with  like  suc- 
cess. With  a  fair  idea  of  colors  and  their  application,  you  may 
increase  the  beauty  and  enhance  the  value  ten  fold  of  any  ordi- 
nary photograph,  by  following  these  instructions.  To  produce  a 
first-class  picture,  you  must  necessarily  have  a  good  subject  to 
work  on.  A  photograph  that  will  take  a  variety  of  colors,  is  best 
adapted  for  a  showy  picture. 

Before  applying  the  colors  to  a  burnished  or  finished  photo- 
graph, soften  or  cleanse  the  surface  with  the  tongue  until  the 
saliva  wets  the  picture  evenly,  without  crawling  ;  oxide  gall  is 
good,  but  saliva  is  the  best  for  this  purpose. 

For  a  palette  on  which  to  mix  or  dilute  colors,  the  bottom  of  a 
plate  or  saucer  will  answer.  Always  have  a  piece  of  blotting 
paper  at  hand  to  take  up  or  remove  superfluous  paint  from  the 
picture,  and  use  it  after  each  application  of  color  to  the  photograph. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  mix  paints  on  a  palette,  washing  one  color 
over  another  will  produce  better  results.  A  tint  is  a  color  ab- 
sorbed in  the  picture,  and  washing  or  wetting  will  not  remove  it. 
A  surface  color  remains  on  top,  and  water  will  remove  it.  You 
can  use  colors  stronger  over  the  shadows.  Use  just  what  liquid 


64  RUSSIAN,  OR  EGYPTIAN  METHOD. 

you  will  find  on  the  cork  of  the  bottle,  added  to  about  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  water,  for  flesh ;  for  draperies  you  can  use  it  stronger, 
or  as  you  desire. 

The  liquid  colors  are  mostly  used,  and  consist  of  twelve  one 
ounce  bottles,  and  are  very  powerful.  Therefore,  make  your  ap- 
plication very  weak,  a  mere  tint  only  is  required.  Repeat  the 
washing  or  tinting  until  the  desired  shade  is  produced.  The 
colors  used  are  as  follows:  Black,  Red,  Blue,  Green,  Car- 
mine, Gold,  Brown,  Violet,  Orange,  Purple  and  Lemon,  all  of 
which  are  transparent,  soluble  in  water,  and  used  as  tinting  col- 
ors. White  is  a  surface  color,  and  opaque. 

For  Flesh — Use  first  a  weak  wash  or  tint  of  gold ;  over  this  a 
tint  of  red,  a  little  stronger  for  the  lips. 

White — This  is  always  used  last  for  high  lights ;  you  can  make 
the  white  any  tint  by  use  of  other  colors. 

Black — Can  be  used  for  a  natural  tint  if  toned  down ;  val- 
uable for  all  kinds  of  shading. 

Red — Takes  readily,  and  produces  all  tints  from  rose  to  scarlet ; 
used  in  flesh. 

Carmine — A  delicate  pink  to  magenta. 

Gold — Takes  readily ;  is  a  substitute  for  yellow ;  used  for  jewelry, 
flesh,  blonde  hair,  etc. ;  use  weak,  and  wash  over  with  red  for 
deeper  results. 

Brown — Takes  readily ;  darkened  by  tinting  over  with  violet  or 
black. 

Violet — Takes  on  touch,  and  is  very  powerful ;  first  application 
very  weak  to  insure  even  coloring ;  it  makes  all  tints  from  lilac 
to  purple,  etc. 

Blue — Takes  slowly ;  repeat  the  washing  for  deep  results. 

Gre«u — Takes  easily,  lighten  by  washing  over  with  gold ;  darken 
with  the  blue ;  always  let  your  first  wash  or  tint  be  very  weak ; 
increase  as  desired  by  repeating. 

The  colors  in  moist  cake  form  are  often  used,  but  the  liquids 
are  preferable.  Sable  brushes,  about  Nos.  3,  8  and  12,  are  suffi- 
cient for  ordinary  purposes. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  PHOTOGRAPHS 

BY  THE 

GELATINE  DRY-PLATE  PROCESS 


(HE  latest  and  meet  zir^id  advance  in 
the  art  is  due  to  the  discovery  of  the 
sensitiveness  of  a  gelatine  film.  This 
knowledge  has  been  practically  ap- 
plied  in  the  introduction  of  plate* 
prepared  with  such  a  coating ;  they 
are  called  "dry  plates,"  to  distin- 
guish them  from  plates  which  must 
pass  through  the  silver  bath,  and  bo 
used  while  wet.  The  gelatine-bro- 
mide dry  plates  are  now  in  genera! 
use  for  taking  pictures  of  out-door 
scenes,  landscapes,  houses,  groups  of 
people,  etc.  To  make  photographs, 
First  Procure  an  Outfit  from  a  dealer  in  photograph  re- 
quisites, costing  from  ten  to  twenty-five  dollars,  consisting  of 
a  view  camera,  for  making  4x5  or  5x8  inch  pictures.  This 
camera  is  so  constructed  as  to  make  either  a  pic  hire  on  the  full 
gize  of  the  plate  (5x8  inches),  or  by  substituting  the  extra  front 
(supplied  with  the  outfit),  and  using  the  pair  of  lenses  of  shorter 
focus,  it  is  admirably  adapted  for  taking  stereoscopic  negatives. 
Also,  by  the  same  arrangements,  two  small  pictures,  of  dissimilar 
objects,  can  be  made  on  the  same  plate.  Included  in  the  outfit, 
are  also  one  patent  double  dry-plate  holder,  one  large  achromatic 
nickel  plated  lens,  one  pair  "Waterbury"  achromatic  matched 
stereoscopic  lens,  one  Taylor  folding  tripod,  one  carrying  case. 

Filling  the  Plate  Holder.     If  this  is  done  in  the  daytime, 
a  closet  or  room  is  selected,  and  all  white  light  excluded  from  it. 


66  HOW  TO  MAKE  PHOTOGRAPHS. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  this  exclusion  absolute.  One  ray  of  white 
light  will  spoil  a  sensitive  plate,  and  therefore  the  evening  is  gen- 
erally chosen  to  develop  negatives,  and  for  illumination,  the  light 
from  a  ruby  lantern  is  employed. 

Gelatine  Plates  are  glass,  with  one  side  coated  with  gela- 
tine, containing  a  haloid  salt.  Place  one  of  them  in  a  dry- 
plate  holder,  with  the  sensitive  (or  the  coated)  side  facing  out- 
ward. Handle  the  plates  by  the  edge,  between  the  thumb  and 
fore  finger,  without  touching  the  sides.  After  putting  into  the 
holders  as  many  plates  as  are  needed  for  the  day's  work,  pack  the 
outfit  so  that  it  can  be  carried  about. 

Taking  the  Picture.  For  field  service  a  camera,  a  number 
of  plate  holders,  filled  with  sensitive  plates,  a  lens,  tripod,  carry- 
ing case,  and  focussing  cloth  are  needed.  When  these  have  been 
taken  to  the  place  which  you  want  to  photograph,  fasten  the 
camera  on  the  tripod,  throw  the  focussing  cloth  over  your  head, 
gather  it  under  your  chin,  draw  out  the  back  of  the  camera, 
thus  extending  the  bellows,  and  continue  the  movement  until 
the  image  on  the  ground  glass  appears  distinct,  then  fasten  the 
back  of  the  camera.  This  is  called  "  focussing."  At  the  first 
glance,  an  inexperienced  person  sees  no  reflection  on  the  ground 
glass,  but  the  eye  soon  becomes  practiced  to  perceiving  the  in- 
verted image  there.  Substitute  a  plate  holder  for  the  ground 
glass,  see  that  the  cap  is  on  the  lens,  pull  the  slide  out  of  the 
holder,  place  it  on  the  top  of  the  camera,  or  in  a  convenient 
place.  If  everything  is  now  in  readiness,  and  the  time  for  ex- 
posing the  sensitive  plate  determined,  uncap  the  lens,  re-capping 
it  at  the  end  of  the  allotted  time,  and  replacing  the  slide  in  the 
holder.  After  you  have  picture  impressions  on  each  sensitive 
film,  pack  your  outfit  and  return  home. 

Making  Negatives .  Amateurs  may  content  themselves  with 
making  the  exposures,  and  sending  their  plates  in  a  light,  tight, 
negative  box,  to  some  photographer,  who  will  produce  the  finished 
picture,  and  mount  them  on  cards.  It  is  not  necessary  that  this 


HOW  TO   MAKE   PHOTOGRAPHS.  67 

should  be  done  at  once,  months  may  elapse,  and  these  dry  plates 
be  carried  hundreds  of  miles. 

The  chemical  outfit  for  making  negatives  comprises  the  fol- 
lowing items :  Two  vulcanite  trays,  a  glass  graduate,  a  set  of 
small  scales,  and  weights  for  weighing  chemicals,  a  ruby  lantern, 
a  bottle  of  varnish,  a  package  of  dry  plates  and  of  chemicals,  a 
small  quantity  of  bromide  of  ammonium,  neutral  oxalate  of  pot- 
ash, protosulphate  of  iron,  hyposulphite  of  soda,  alum,  and  sul- 
phuric acid.  These  chemicals  are  not  dangerous,  neither  will 
they  injure  any  one  who  handles  them,  and  they  do  not  emit 
offensive  odors.  Silver  stains,  and  the  disagreeable  smell  of  col- 
lodion belong  to  the  old  or  "wet"  process. 

At  a  convenient  time  take  the  plate  holder  into  the  dark  room, 
ilium  mate  it  with  ruby  light,  take  the  sensitive  plates  out  of  the 
holders,  being  careful  not  to  touch  their  surfaces.  Hold  them 
by  the  edge.  Place  one  of  the  sensitive  plates,  film  side  up,  in  a 
tray  partly  filled  with  water.  While  it  remains  there,  mix  this 
solution :  Neutral  oxalate  of  potash,  5  ounces ;  bromide  of  pot- 
assium, 20  grains ;  water,  20  ounces.  If  the  solution  does  not 
turn  blue  litmus  paper  red,  add  a  few  drops  of  oxalic  acid, 
enough  to  make  it  do  so.  A  graduated  glass  is  used  to  measure 
out  the  liquids.  After  rinsing  the  glass  out,  mix  a  second  solu- 
tion made  as  follows :  Protosulphate  of  iron,  5  ounces ;  water, 
20  ounces;  and  acidulate  it  with  20  drops  of  sulphuric  acid_ 
Both  of  these  solutions  keep  well.  Now  combine  a  quarter  of 
an  ounce  of  the  latter  solution  with  two  ounces  of  the  former 
and  mix  them  well.  Pour  off  the  water  in  the  tray  containing 
the  gelatine  plates.  Be  certain  not  to  touch  the  sensitive  side  of 
the  plate.  Flow  the  combined  developing  solution  over  the  plate 
and  displace,  by  a  touch  of  your  finger,  any  air  bubbles  that 
may  form.  After  a  short  time  traces  of  the  image  on  the  sensi- 
tive film  will  appear.  If  they  do  not,  pour  the  developing  solu- 
tion back  into  the  tray  and  add  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  more  of 
the  iron  solution.  Pour  the  strengthened  solution  over  the  plate 
and  look  at  it  intently.  In  a  short  time  the  details  of  the  pic- 


68  HOW  TO  MAKE   PHOTOGRAPHS. 

ture  may  be  dimly  seen.    Wait  patiently  till  the  milky  white  ap- 
pearance is  changed  to  a  grey  color,  and  then  pour  off  the  de- 
veloper into  a  developing  bottle,  if  you  have  one.    Wash  the 
plate  in  two  changes  of  water.    In  the  unused  tray  mix  a  solu- 
tion composed  of  4  ounces  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  and  20 
ounces  of  water.     (Label  this  tray  "  Hypo.,"  and  do  not  use  it 
for  any  other  purpose.)     A  plate  lifter  is  a  convenient  device  for 
taking  plates  out  of  the  solutions  or  baths.     Change  the  plate  to 
the  hypo,  tray,  and  let  it  remain  there  until  every  vestige  of  the 
milky  white  appearance  has  vanished,  even  from  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  plate.    The  plate  can  now  be  examined  by  white 
light,  which  has  no  effect  upon  it  at  this  stage.    Wash  it  thor- 
oughly.   A  negative  washing  box  will  be  found  to  be  of  great 
assistance.    If  this  washing  of  the  plate  is  not  done  thoroughly, 
the  hyposulphite  of  soda  crystals  will  adhere  to  the  plate  and 
mar  the  picture.    Meanwhile  rinse  out  the  tray  first  in  use  and 
partially  fill  it  with  a  solution  consisting  of  20  ounces  of  water 
and  all  the  alum  it  will  hold  in  solution.    Allow  the  plate  to  re- 
main in  the  alum  bath  five  minutes.    Cleanse  your  hands  from 
any  adhering  soda  solution.    Again  wash  the  plate,  and  set  it  on 
edge  to  dry  in  a  negative  rack. 

All  the  preceding  instructions  can  be  briefly  summarized. 

1.  Put  some  sensitive  plates  into  dry  plate  holders. 

2.  Make  the  exposure. 

3.  After  taking  a  plate  out  of  the  holder,  place  it  in  a  tray 
filled  with  water. 

4.  Drain  off  the  water  and  put  the  plate  in  the  mixed  devel- 
oping solution. 

5.  Wash  the  plate  and  place  it  in  the  soda  solution. 

6.  Wash  the  plate  and  give  it  an  alum  bath. 

7.  Wash  the  plate  and  set  it  in  the  rack  to  dry.    When  per- 
fectly dry,  coat  the  plate  over  with  negative  varnish,  and  have 
that  coating  dry  and  hard.    Now  it  may  be  touched  by  the  fingers. 

Making  Prints  from  Negatives.     At  this  point  the  work 
ceases  to  be  one  of  faith,  as  the  results  are  now  to  appear.    An 


HOW  TO  MAKE  PHOTQGKAPHS.  69 

outfit  of  printing  requisites  comprises  a  printing  frame,  a  porce- 
lain pan,  a  vulcanite  tray,  some  ready  sensitized  paper,  a  bottle 
of  French  azotate,  a  bottle  of  chloride  of  gold,  a  glass  graduate, 
some  hyposulphite  of  soda,  a  glass  form,  a  Robinson  trimmer,  some 
sheets  of  fine  card-board,  a  jar  of  parlor  paste,  and  a  bristle  brush. 

Sensitized  Paper  Prints.  In  the  morning  prepare  a  ton- 
ing bath  sufficient  for  the  prints  to  be  toned  that  day.  Put  7£ 
grains  of  chloride  of  gold  into  7£  ounces  of  water.  Label  the 
bottle  "  Chloride  of  Gold  Solution."  Take  1  ounce  of  French 
azotate,  1^  ounces  of  the  chloride  of  gold  solution,  and  add  6 
ounces  of  water,  and  you  have  a  toning  bath  which  keeps  welL 
Where  the  prints  do  not  give  the  required  tone,  the  bath  must 
be  strengthened  by  adding  to  it  some  new  solution.  Place  the 
glossy  side  of  a  sheet  of  sensitized  paper  upon  the  film  side  of 
the  negative  in  the  printing  frame.  Do  this  in  a  very  dim  light. 

The  printing  has  gone  far  enough  when  the  print  looks  a  little 
darker  than  you  wish  the  finished  picture  to  appear.  Make  as 
many  prints  from  the  negative  as  you  desire.  Wash  the  prints 
in  several  changes  of  water.  Take  seven  ounces  of  the  toning 
solution  and  change  the  prints  to  the  pan  containing  it,  where 
the  prints  should  be  turned  over  and  over  to  make  the  toning 
even.  The  toning  process  should  go  on  until  the  dark  part  of 
the  pictures  have  a  very  faint  purplish  tint  and  the  white  por- 
tion is  clear.  Wash  the  picture,  but  preserve  the  toning  solution. 
The  pictures  should  now  be  left  for  twenty  minutes  in  a  solution 
composed  of  4  ounces  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  1  ounce  of  com- 
mon salt,  \  ounce  of  washing  soda,  and  32  ounces  of  water. 
This  solution  should  also  be  prepared  a  day  or  two  in  advance. 
Give  the  pictures  a  final  and  effectual  washing.  After  they  are 
dried,  lay  them  out  one  by  one  and,  using  the  Robinson  trimmer, 
cut  them  to  the  desired  size.  Now  spread  over  the  back  of  each 
in  turn  some  parlor  paste,  and  lay  them  down  with  the  center  on 
the  sheets  of  card-board.  This  operation  is  called  "  Mounting 
Pictures."  Press  with  a  paper  cutter  upon  the  pictures  and 
toward  their  edges  until  you  are  satisfied  that  they  will  lay  flat, 


DRAUGHTSMEN'S  SENSITIVE  PAPER,? 


FOE  COPYING  DRAWINGS. 


PROCURE  a  printing  frame,  such  as  photographers  use ; 
lay  the  tracing,  face  down,  upon  the  glass,  upon 
which  place  the  sensitive  paper,  prepared  side  down, 
then  several  thicknesses  of  cotton  flannel  for  a  pad 
to  equalize  the  pressure,  and  cause  the  sensitive  paper  and  tracing 
to  lay  in  close  contact,  and  then  close  in  the  back.  If,  on  turn- 
ing the  frame  over,  any  wrinkles  appear,  that  side  of  the  hinged 
back  may  be  opened  and  a  piece  of  paper  laid  in  just  above  the 
spot,  when  all  will  come  smooth  on  closing  the  frame,  (this 
should  be  done  in  a  dimly  lighted  room),  then  expose  to  direct 
sunlight,  care  being  taken  that  the  whole  frame  comes  under  the 
light,  without  shadows ;  let  the  exposure  be  from  five  to  ten 
minutes,  according  to  the  brightness  of  the  day.  Remove  again 
to  darkened  room,  examine  by  opening  one  of  the  hinged  backs ; 
if  the  lines  have  slightly  turned  in  color,  it  has  been  highly  ex- 
posed ;  it  can  be  removed  and  washed  in  clear  water,  with  two 
or  three  changes,  then  hang  up  to  dry.  You  will  have  an  exact 
copy  of  the  original,  with  white  lines  on  a  blue  ground,  at  a  cost 
of  about  one  tenth  that  of  tracing,  with  absolutely  no  error, 
paper  must  be  kept  in  perfect  darkness  until  used. 


E  term  wood  painting  has,  through  the 
numerous  designs  invented  for  the  pur- 
pose, found  such  a  widespread  use  that 
it  would  be  wasted  pains  to  attempt  to 
substitute  a  more  fitting  one.    Not  every- 
thing that  is  painted  upon  wood,  falls 
under  the  knowledge  of  wood  painting. 
No  one  would  think  of  counting  an  oil 
painting,  executed  upon  wood,  under  the  category 
of  wood  painting.    But  if  the  colors  were  the  dis* 
tinguishing  sign,  then  wood  and   water    color 
painting  would  fall  together,  or  wood  painting 
could  be  only  an  aquarelle  painting  applied  upon 
1-wood.    Wood  painting  permits  itself  to  be  thus 
denned,  inasmuch  as  the  character  of  the  material 
and  the  choice  of  its  objects  differ,  so  wood  water- 
color  painting  differs  from  the  actual  water  color. 
While  it  is  possible  for  the  water-color  artist  to  produce  upon 
paper  the  softest  tones  and  most  brilliant  phenomena   of  nature, 
so  that  the  painting  inspires  the  observer  through  its  life-like 
freshness ;  if  the  same  picture,  by  the  same  artist's  hand,  were  re- 


72  WOOD  PAINTING. 

produced  in  exactly  theisame  manner  upon  wood,  it  would  appear 
ravr  and  unfinished, — yes,  even  wholly  incorrect. 

The  prepared  wood  takes  the  softest  tint,  as  well  as  paper,  but 
the  texture  of  the  wood  shimmers  through  the  transparent  tones, 
and  though  the  fibres  and  pores  of  the  same  have  taken  another 
hue,  they  still  act  as  wood,  and  thereby  destroy  the  effect  which 
the  artist  intended.  For  it  is  originally  the  task  of  the  artist  to 
thus  deceive  the  human  sense  of  vision  in  such  a  manner,  and  so 
faithfully  imitate  the  appearance  of  things  in  nature  that  the 
Observer  must  believe  himself  transported  in  the  midst  of  reality 
and  actual  life,  through  the  activity  of  fancy;  in  short,  the 
artist  must  reproduce  true  to  nature,  and  his  pictures  have  the 
effect  of  nature. 

If  one  was  to  try  with  exclusive  body  colors  which  do  not 
allow  the  grain  of  the  wood  to  penetrate,  to  attain  this  ideal  of 
painting,  and  attempt  to  create  upon  wood  an  actual  life-like  pic- 
ture, we  would  not  conceive  such  an  aquarelle,  that  never  can 
compare  with  a  picture  upon  paper  in  softness,  just  as  little  as  an 
oil  painting  upon  wood,  as  wood  painting  in  the  general  sense. 

Therefore,  neither  the  material  to  be  painted  nor  the  colors 
applied  are  the  criterion  of  distinguishing  reasons  for  wood  paint- 
ing on  one  hand,  and  the  oil  or  nearer  related  aquarelle  painting 
on  the  other. 

The  difference  in  a  measure  lies  herein,  that  the  characteristic 
peculiarity  of  wood  does  not  subdue,  but  is  drawn  upon  for  the 
effect  of  the  painting,  partly  in  the  nature  of  that  which  paint- 
ing upon  wood  represents  or  should  represent. 

Wood  painting,  as  far  as  we  have  touched  upon  it,  cannot  and 
does  not  intend  to  create  natural  pictures ;  it  only  serves  to  orna- 
ment objects  in  wood,  which  through  colored  and  tasteful  designs 
are  to  produce  an  agreeable  charm  to  the  eye.  It  is  not  an 
object  in  itself,  like  a  painting,  the  frame  of  which  serves  as  a 
folio,  but  an  external  addition,  like  the  ornaments  of  buildings, 
to  make  an  otherwise  monotonous  surface  interesting. 

Wooden  articles  admit  of  being  ornamented  in  various  ways, 


WOOD   PAINTING.  73 

through  sculpture  work,  by  inlaying  of  colored  woods  and  metal, 
and  by  painting. 

The  choice  of  ornamenting  is  naturally  dependent  upon  the 
purpose  the  object  to  be  decorated  is  intended  for ;  a  table,  which 
must  naturally  have  a  smooth  surface,  we  would  not  think  of 
making  useless  by  carving  the  top. 

Wood  painting,  as  it  is  now  en  vogue,  is  of  a  recent  date,  and 
originally  sprang  out  of  the  idea  to  imitate  the  mosaic  work  of 
art  cabinet-makers. 

It  may,  with  consideration  for  the  purpose  of  the  objects  to 
be  ornamented,  also  imitate  carving,  but  must  not  go  beyond  the 
wood  tones  and  the  production  of  the  effects  of  light ;  it  may 
even  attempt  to  imitate  enamel  work  by  the  application  of  strong, 
bright  colors ;  but  it  ought  at  the  same  time  be  in  keeping  with 
the  purpose  the  object  in  hand  is  intended  for,  and  never  involve 
itself  in  contradictions. 

Its  refined  field  should  always  remain  the  imitative,  and  should 
therefore  confine  itself  as  near  as  possible  upon  the  application 
of  ornaments  with  a  surface  where  effect  is  flat,  and  conse- 
quently do  not  mar  the  surface.  To  apply  figures,  modest,  deco- 
rative additions  for  the  ornamentation  of  surfaces,  is  allowable, 
as  long  as  they  do  not  clash  with  the  character  of  the  surface ; 
but  here  the  limits  that  are  drawn  by  the  nature  of  the  article 
are  not  to  be  overstepped.  For  every  perspective  representation 
of  a  figure  painted  with  the  application  of  light  and  shade 
intends  to  deceive  the  observer ;  it  lifts  itself  off  the  surface  and 
110  longer  works  upon  our  fancy  as  a  part  of  the  surface,  but  as 
body.  Cases,  chests  and  other  large  pieces  may  be  decorated  in 
this  manner;  tables,  portfolios  and  similar  pieces  which  in 
themselves  are  required  to  have  smooth  surfaces ;  smaller  objects 
to  be  handled,  where  the  sense  of  touch  can  at  every  moment 
convince  itself  of  the  attempted  deception  intended  for  the  eye, 
one  will  do  well  to  take  heed  in  not  painting  these  with  figures 
of  a  plastic  effect.  Such  contradictions  are  not  to  be  tolerated 
in  principle  and  should  be  avoided  in  the  selection  of  patterns 
»nd  designs, 


74  WOOD   PAINTING. 

To  create  a  real  picture  in  the  beginning  lies  outside  the  pro- 
vince of  the  art  of  wood  painting,  and  therefore  the  practice  of 
the  same,  as  far  as  it  does  not  reach  into  the  professional  art, 
must  always  be  confined  within  the  circle  of  amateurs.  Good, 
correct  drawings  of  the  outlines,  cleanliness  in  coloring  and  a 
proper  combination  of  the  colors,  is  the  highest  aim  the  art  of 
painting  upon  wood  may  achieve;  for  the  artist  is  greatly 
answerable  for  the  composition  of  ornaments,  where  designs  are 
used  as  patterns. 

But  even  in  the  narrow  limits  in  which  the  art  of  painting 
upon  wood  moves,  it  accomplishes  much  that  is  beautiful,  that 
the  acquirement  of  the  same  cannot  be  too  strongly  recom- 
mended. 

This  is  especially  intended  for  young  ladies,  who,  in  the  occu- 
pation of  painting  upon  wood,  find  just  as  agreeable  and  remun- 
erative diversion  as  the  tedious,  sense-dulling  work  of  embroidery. 

General  Preliminaries.  The  first  essential  requirement  to 
paint  upon  wood  is,  without  a  doubt,  practice  in  drawing. 

One  is  easily  inclined,  inasmuch  as  there  is  no  self -inventive 
gift  employed  in  connection  with  it,  to  consider  painting  on  wood 
as  a  purely  mechanical  work,  because  the  design  is  traced  and 
transferred  upon  wood,  by  means  of  tracing  paper ;  yet  there  re- 
mains, up  to  this  easy  beginning,  the  further  embellishment 
entirely  to  the  free  hand,  and  it  is  just  here  that  difficulties  meet 
the  painter  unskilled  in  the  art  of  drawing. 

The  difficult  point  in  wood  painting  lies  in  the  conscientious, 
artistic  execution ;  the  more  pains  taken  in  that  direction,  the 
stronger  the  lines  of  beauty  and  harmony  in  coloring,  the  more 
certain  it  is  to  obtain  something  excellent  in  this  work. 

The  simplest  design,  when  correctly  and  cleanly  painted,  has  a 
more  agreeable  effect  upon  the  observer  than  the  most  beautiful 
pattern  that  has  been  faultily  produced  through  a  series  of  short- 
comings. 

Requisites.    The  possession  of  a  good  and  complete  set  of 


WOOD  PAINTING.  75 

instruments,  in  a  measure,  assists  in  the  success  of  the  work. 
The  following  utensils  are  used  in  wood  painting :  Lead  Pen- 
cils, (Faber's  B,  HB,  HH),  a  pen  knife,  a  lead  pencil  file,  an 
eraser,  a  horn  protractor  upon  which  to  rest  the  compass  upon 
round  articles,  a  ruler,  a  square,  a  porcelain  palette  with  six  cells, 
several  good  fine  and  coarse  water-color  brushes  on  handles  with 
metal  ferrules,  several  sheets  of  extra  fine  tracing  paper  or  cloth ; 
the  latter  is  more  expensive  than  the  paper,  but  far  more  durable, 
in  such  cases  where  the  drawing  is  gone  over  again.  For  the 
drawing  of  fine  outlines,  pens  (Gillott's  crowquill  pens  are  best) ; 
for  heavier  outlines  or  large  designs  goosequills  are  best.  It  is 
desirable  to  possess  a  complete  outfit  of  drawing  materials,  of 
which  the  following  are  indispensable :  A  drawing  pen,  a  com- 
pass with  pen  and  pencil  pieces. 

The  Colors.  It  is  advisable  to  use  only  the  genuine  India 
ink,  as  the  ordinary  India  ink  nearly  always  discolors  the  soft 
tints  that  are  painted  over  it,  which  sometimes  spoils  the  entire 
work.  The  ordinary  water-colors,  not  the  covering  or  Gouache 
colors  are  to  be  used.  The  prepared  wood  just  as  readily  takes 
the  Gouache  and  covering  colors,  as  a  large  number  of  designs  of 
natural  flowers  show,  yet  this  method  should  not  be  indulged  in, 
for  this  reason,  because  it  completely  covers  the  texture  of  the 
wood,  thereby  giving  the  art  critic  an  opportunity  to  censure. 

Since  wood  painting  is  mostly  an  imitation  of  inlaid  wood 
work — mosaic — as  a  rule  the  preference  should  be  given  to  the 
application  of  the  fitting  colors  to  the  stained  wood  tones.  Who 
does  not  possess  a  complete  outfit  of  colors,  ought  at  least  secure 
the  following :  sepia,  dark  sepia,  burnt  sienna,  light  ochre,  dark 
vermilion,  carmine,  cobalt  blue,  Indian  red,  olive  green,  Koman 
brown,  lampblack  and  white. 

The  best  colors  are  the  Dusseldorf  (Schonfeld  or  Winsor  & 
Newton's)  moist  water-colors,  in  metal  tubes  or  porcelain  pans. 
Gold  and  silver  is  generally  painted  from  shells,  this  is  to  be  used 
pparingly,  and  is  polished  when  the  work  is  finished  with  a  steel 


76  WOOD  PAINTING. 

instrument,  a  knitting-needle,  glove  buttoner,  or  an  agate  burn- 
isher. Red  gold  has  a  dark  effect,  retreating ;  green  gold,  on 
the  other  hand,  stands  out  and  has  a  light  appearance.  Black- 
lead  is  to  be  had  in  lumps,  and  is  most  effective  for  bright  or  red 
ornamentations.  Bronze  powder  is  prepared  with  a  little  gum 
water.  The  possession  of  a  magnifying  glass  is  of  importance  in 
going  over  the  work  when  finished,  and  subjecting  the  same  to  a 
severe  scrutiny.  It  also  greatly  assists  in  the  correction  of  faults 
that  may  have  crept  in. 

Transferring  the  Drawing  upon  Wood.  A  design  should 
be  chosen  that  corresponds  with  the  size  and  shape  of  the  wood 
article.  A  design  is  seldom  spoiled  by  extending  the  outer  lines, 
yet  we  should  be  cautioned  against  the  reverse  case,  in  trying  to 
force  a  large  design  upon  a  small  space  by  omitting  the  outer 
lines  that  serve  as  a  frame. 

Enlarging  and  Reducing  Designs.  If  a  design  is  to  be 
brought  within  the  compass  of  another,  reduced  or  enlarged,  take 
a  proportional  divider,  or  draw  a  net  of  equal  squares,  the  original 
or  a  drawing  of  the  same  with  a  lead  pencil,  in  proportion  required 
for  the  wood  surface,  which  are  numbered.  In  each  square  ex- 
actly the  same  parts  are  drawn  from  the  design  which  are  con- 
tained in  the  corresponding  square  on  the  wood. 

The  Divisions  of  the  Wood  Surface.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  work,  the  surface  to  be  painted  is  divided  by  distinct  pen- 
cil lines  into  halves,  quarters,  sixths,  etc.,  just  as  the  design 
admits  of ;  these  lines  serve  as  a  starting  point  for  the  traced 
design  to  be  placed  upon  this,  where  halves,  quarters,  etc.,  must 
fit  exactly  into  these.  The  measuring  is  done  by  means  of  a 
compass  or  a  strip  of  paper  the  length  of  the  object,  which  gives 
the  center  point  by  cutting  the  same  in  two.  In  painting  round 
articles,  such  as  lamp  plates,  table  tops,  etc.,  a  sheet  of  paper  of 
the  exact  size  is  cut  out  This  is  folded  once,  in  halves  and  quar- 
ters, as  the  case  may  be.  It  is  spread  upon  the  surface  of  the 


WOOD    PAINTING.  77 

article,  then  prick  through  the  creases  where  they  cross  each 
other.  To  avoid  injury  to  the  center  of  a  round  wooden  plate  by 
the  repeated  application  of  a  compass,  a  horn  protractor  is  fas- 
tened to  the  center  with  thumb  tacks,  which  leaves  the  center 
transparent,  upon  which  the  compass  may  be  applied  with  con- 
siderable pressure.  In  the  absence  of  a  compass  with  an  exten- 
sion where  large  circles  are  required,  a  strip  of  pasteboard  is 
substituted;  this  is  fastened  to  the  center  by  a  needle.  For 
every  cross  line  a  hole  is  made  into  the  strip,  the  pencil  is  inserted 
and  drawn  around  by  moving  the  strip  in  a  circular  motion. 

The  Tracing  and  Transferring  of  Designs.  The  design 
is  carefully  drawn  upon  tracing  paper  or  tracing  cloth,  by  means 
of  a  medium  soft  pencil ;  the  more  perfect  the  drawing  is  made, 
the  more  it  will  lighten  the  work.  If  the  drawing  obtained  is 
perfectly  symmetrical,  i.  e.,  the  right  half  of  the  same  exactly 
like  the  left,  it  will  save  much  time  and  labor  by  transferring  it 
upon  the  surface  by  rubbing.  If  the  symmetrical  design  is 
accompanied  in  the  center  by  a  monogram,  motto,  figures  or 
flowers,  these  are  for  the  present  omitted  and  traced  in  a  manner 
which  will  be  explained  further  on. 

The  tracing  of  an  entirely  symmetrical  design  is  reversed, 
with  the  drawing  turned  downward  upon  the  wood  and  carefully 
observed  that  the  center  of  the  tracing  lies  completely  in  cor- 
respondence with  the  center  line  of  the  division  line  of  the  sur- 
face. The  tracing  paper  is  fastened  with  wax,  and  held  as  firmly 
with  the  left  hand  as  possible,  that  it  cannot  be  displaced,  and 
rubbed  with  a  paper  folder  or  the  thumb-nail  of  the  right  hand 
over  all  parts  of  the  design,  until  the  same  is  plainly  transferred 
upon  the  wood.  For  figures,  flowers,  monograms  and  all  not 
strictly  symmetrical  designs,  the  following  manner  is  applied : 
The  tracing  paper  is  laid  upon  the  surface,  design  upward,  under 
which  a  piece  of  colored  transfer  paper  is  placed  and  the  design 
is  retraced  with  a  hard  lead  pencil.  For  this  somewhat  slower 
and  more  tedious  manner  it  is  advisable  to  fasten  the  tracing  and 


78  WOOD   PAINTING. 

transfer  paper  with  thumb-tacks.  Those  parts  of  the  surface  are 
selected  for  the  thumb-tacks  that  are  afterwards  to  be  painted 
with  black  or  other  ground  colors,  so  that  there  will  be  no  visible 
traces  left  after  design  has  been  transferred. 

Fixing  the  Transferred  Design.  After  the  design  has 
been  transferred,  all  the  straight  and  intersecting  lines  are  care- 
fully measured  and  compared  with  the  compass  from  the  center 
or  the  dividing  middle  lines ;  then  with  the  drawing  pen  and 
India  ink  the  entire  design  is  gone  over  in  fine  lines.  In  figures 
and  light  ornamental  designs,  that  come  upon  a  dark  ground, 
the  India  ink  line  is  not  put  over,  but  closely  to  the  outside  pen- 
cil mark,  or  such  figures  will  become  too  faint  in  the  beginning, 
and  are  lost  in  the  dark  ground,  whilst  it  can  always  be  remedied 
by  the  subsequent  removal  of  parts  that  have  been  drawn  too 
heavily.  The  entire  article  is  now  cleaned  from  all  pencil  marks 
left  by  tracing,  and  the  coloring  begins. 

The  Coloring.  Spread  upon  the  palette,  before  beginning 
to  paint,  all  the  different  colors,  in  sufficient  quantity,  that  are 
to  be  used.  A  good  rule  in  coloring  the  design,  is  not  to  apply 
the  colors  in  too  dry  a  state,  so  that  the  separate  brush  strokes 
may  not  be  visible.  The  coloring  is  just  that  part  of  the  work 
which  cannot  be  explicitly  enough  described  and  taught  in 
written  instructions,  and  can  only  be  thoroughly  comprehended 
through  the  practical  knowledge  gained  by  experience,  and 
thereby  perfected. 

Upon  the  most  delicate  tinting  of  entire  surfaces  the  middle 
tones  follow,  lastly  the  dark  ground  colors,  black,  and  the  metals. 
Allow  each  color  to  dry  thoroughly  before  beginning  with  the 
next,  or  going  over  it.  The  colors  must  stand  out  boldly  from 
each  other  and  should  not  be  too  lightly  applied ;  this  must  be 
particularly  observed  in  the  dark  body  tints,  as  the  colors  lose  a 
little  of  their  depth  in  the  process  of  polishing. 

When  the  work  is  completed,  the  entire  drawing  is  gone  over 


WOOD  PAINTING.  79 

again  with  a  fine  brush  or  pen ;  all  the  outlines  lost  in  painting 
are  reproduced  with  India  ink. 

Clear  white  upon  light  wood  is  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  pos- 
sible ;  on  the  other  hand,  a  mixture  of  white  serves  to  make  the 
light  colors  stand  out  more  effectively  upon  gray  or  black  wood. 

Retouching.  If  there  are  any  weak  points  in  the  painting, 
the  spots  are  to  be  carefully  removed  with  a  damp  sponge,  and 
the  dampened  parts  scraped  clean  with  a  penknife.  If  visible 
holes  are  left  by  the  thumb  tacks  used  in  the  tracing  of  the 
design,  a  small  drop  of  clear  water  is  applied  to  them,  when 
they  will  gradually  draw  together.  Paint  in  good  light,  have  a 
steady  table,  and  keep  the  design  constantly  before  the  eyes  dur- 
ing the  work. 

In  painting  boxes  and  other  high  objects,  it  is  necessary  to 
place  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  same  some  other  objects,  such 
as  books,  to  reach  the  plane  of  the  surface  being  painted,  in 
order  that  the  hand  and  arm  may  rest  with  ease. 

The  Wood  Articles.  "Wooden  articles  ready  for  painting 
are  procured  from  the  cabinet  makers,  or  at  the  art  stores. 

There  are  over  900  different  articles  in  wood  for  decorating,  in 
all  shapes  and  sizes,  beautifully  and  tastily  finished,  for  the  artist 
and  amateur  to  paint  upon.  A  few  of  them  may  be  mentioned 
here — tables,  panels,  workboxes,  paper  weights,  fancy  boxes,  fans, 
hat  brushes,  glove  boxes,  albums,  dust  pans  and  brushes,  photo 
frames,  easels,  trays  and  newspaper  holders.  What  canvas  is  to 
oil  painting,  and  paper  is  to  color  painting,  the  above  articles  are 
to  the  art  of  painting  upon  wood. 

Not  every  ordinary  smooth-planed  piece  of  wood  is  adapted  to 
painting.  The  wood  must  be  prepared  for  the  purpose  it  is  in- 
tended for,  or  it  would  cause  the  color  to  flow  or  spread.  lime, 
maple,  chestnut,  ash  and  holly  are  the  woods  generally  manufac- 
tured into  articles  intended  for  painting  upon.  Olive  wood  is 
also  excellent  for  this  purpose.  In  the  south  of  France  and 


80  WOOD    PAINTINT,. 

Italy,  painted  olive  wood,  forms  quite  an  article  of  commerce, 
being  closely  allied  with  the  inlaid  work. 

Polishing.  Procure  a  bottle  of  the  wood  varnish  (prepared  for 
this  purpose) ;  in  a  warm  room,  with  a  soft  flat  brush,  go  over 
the  article  as  rapidly  as  possible,  with  a  thin  coat.  Leave  this 
first  .coating  until  the  next  day  to  dry,  in  a  place  entirely  free 
from  dust.  The  varnish  is  applied  twice  more  in  the  same  man- 
ner ;  then  have  at  hand  a  small  bottle  of  white  shellac  polish 
and  one  of  linseed  oil.  Make  a  small  ball  of  flannel ;  put  upon 
this  a  few  drops  of  the  oil ;  then  cover  it  with  a  piece  of  linen, 
which  is  moistened  with  the  polish,  and  the  article  is  rubbed  in 
a  circular  manner,  without  resting  upon  the  article  when  the 
rubbing  is  discontinued.  If  the  linen  should  adhere  during  the 
polishing,  put  a  drop  of  the  oil  upon  it.  It  sometimes  requires 
from  one  to  two  hours  of  constant  rubbing  until  the  surface  is 
completely  smooth  and  polished. 

Designs  recommended  are  those  by  Minna  Laudin,  Hermann 
Schaper,  E.  Wendt,  Emil  Zschimmer  and  Elizabeth  Hubler. 
They  are  lithographic  color  plates,  and  come  in  the  form  of  sets. 
Minna  Laudin's  designs  are  among  the  newest.    The  two 
gets  contain  over  twenty  patterns,  each  fitting  exactly  in  size  and 
shape  the  wooden  articles  already  mentioned. 

Schaper's  designs  are  intended  for  larger  pieces, 
such  as  table  tops,  music  holders,  lamp  trays,  etc. 
His  first  scries  (entirely  new)  is  divided  into  five 
sheets,  with  as  many  sheets  upon  which  the  out- 
lines of  the  designs  are  clearly  printed,  to  facili- 
tate the  transferring  of  the  same  upon  wood. 

E.  Wendt's  designs  are  both  unique  and  rich 
in  their  way,  and  contain  considerable  ornamen- 
tal work  in  gold  and  silver.  His  designs  for 
table  tops  are  extremely  handsome. 

Emil  Zschimmer's  and  Elizabeth  Hubler's  are 
acknowledged  as  standard  works,  and  favorites 
of  the  artists  engaged  in  painting  upon  wood. 


TRANSPARENCIES,- 


HESE  transparencies,  or  window  pictures,  are  of 
late  very  much  used  and  admired,  and  are  pur- 
chased by  those  who  have  no  knowledge  of  how 
they  are  made,  at  exhorbitant  prices.  They  are 
made  upon  glass,  perfectly  transparent,  and  re- 
quire a  good  light  to  see  them.  The  way  these 
pictures  are  produced  is  simple,  and  the  process 
easy  to  learn.  In  it  lies  the  secret,  or  funda- 
mental principles,  of  all  glass  pictures. 

Instructions.  Procure  a  fine,  clear,  French  plate 
glass,  size  required,  to  receive  the  picture,  and  make  it 
perfectly  clean  with  alcohol.  Select  the  picture  you 
may  desire  from  the  list  of  fine  steel  engravings  con- 
tained in  magazines,  etc.  Go  over  the  face  with  a  damp 
sponge,  in  order  to  remove  the  dust  or  spots  that  may 
have  accumulated  upon  it,  and  smoothing  it  out.  Apply 
to  the  face  of  the  print,  with  a  brush,  a  paste  made  from 
amylum,  a  teaspoonful,  and  nitrate  strontium,  ^  ounce 
\ — sometimes  albumen  is  used.  Now  go  over  the  glass 
in  the  same  way,  evenly  and  smoothly.  When  this  is 
done,  lay  the  picture,  face  down,  upon  the  glass,  and 
press  with  dry  cloth  until  every  part  of  the  picture  has  adhered 
to  the  glass,  and  all  the  air  bubbles  pressed  out.  Lay  away  the 


82  TRANSPARENCIES. 

glass  for  a  few  hours,  until  perfectly  dry,  when  you  wet  the  paper 
and  commence  rubbing  it  off;  if  it  works  well  without  any 
further  wetting,  continue  the  process  until  every  vestige  of  paper 
has  been  removed,  and  nothing  left  upon  the  glass  but  the  out- 
lines of  your  engraving.  Oil  it  now  with  castor  oil  three  parts, 
oil  of  lavender  one :  if  too  thick,  add  turpentine.  It  is  now  com- 
plete, and  by  holding  it  to  the  light  it  will  present  a  beautiful, 
steel-like  engraving  transparency. 

You  can  add  a  border  if  you  like,  by  pasting  around  the  mar- 
gin a  tinted  paper ;  or  to  give  them  still  a  better  finish,  back 
them  up  with  a  pane  of  ornamental  ground  glass,  and  place  in  a 
transparency  metal  frame,  with  rings  to  hang  them  by,  which 
can  be  found  at  any  art  store. 


,  or  Oriental  fainting. 


-•INSTRUCTION. -i- 


AY  the  glass  over  the  pattern  or  copy  you  wish  to 
paint  from,  such  as  flowers,  birds,  wreaths,  etc., 
then  with  a  fine  pencil  brush,  or  a  common  writing 
pen,  trace  all  the  outlines  of  your  pattern  as  well 
as  possible  on  the  glass,  using  for  that  purpose 
black  paint  made  from  lampblack  and  copal 
varnish ;  if  too  thick,  add  a  little  turpentine. 
When  this  is  done,  paint  all  the  glass  outside  the 
picture,  or  that  part  not  occupied  by  your  draw- 
ing, with  the  black  paint,  same  as  used  in  making 
the  outlines,  only  a  trifle  thicker.  This  will  give 
your  picture  a  neat  background ;  other  colors  can 
be  used,  but  this  gives  the  best  body,  and  is  the  most  appropriate, 
contrasting  well  with  the  other  colors  to  be  used  in  the  picture,  j 


84  CRYSTAL,  OR  ORIENTAL  PAINTING. 

Let  it  lay  until  well  dried,  so  the  blacJc  will  not  unite  with  the 
colors  you  are  about  to  use.  Now,  with  the  glass  still  remaining 
over  the  copy,  you  may  commence  applying  the  paints,  if  the 
tracing  lines  are  dry.  If  you  are  painting  a  red  rose,  use  carmine 
and  flake  white,  Prussian  blue,  and  chrome  yellow  for  the  leaf,  etc., 
using  a  small  camel-hair  brush.  Continue  in  this  way  until  you 
have  used  all  the  colors  which  appear  in  your  copy  or  picture 
underneath,  which  remains  there  to  guide  you,  and  the  pen  lines 
upon  the  glass  to  separate  the  colors.  When  the  first  color  is 
perfectly  dry,  apply  the  second,  and  so  on  until  you  have  com- 
pleted all  the  work  which  the  copy  demands,  using  your  own 
judgment  in  the  matter,  applying  them  as  they  appear  in 
the  picture  you  are  working  from. 

When  the  painting  is  done  and  dry,  cover  the  back  of  the 
transparency  with  copper  or  tin-foil  crinkled,  which  gives  it  a 
sparkling,  crystal-like  appearance.  It  is  now  ready  for  framing. 
In  placing  it  in  the  frame,  be  careful  and  not  press  the  back- 
board too  close  on  to  the  foil,  or  it  will  destroy  the  brilliant  effect 
in  the  picture. 

The  colors  used  in  this  kind  of  painting  must  be  transparent 
oil  colors,  with  the  exception  of  the  background. 

For  white,  use  ground  silver  or  flake  white ;  for  blue,  Prussian 
blue ;  for  pink,  mix  scarlet  lake  and  silver  white ;  orange,  mix 
chrome  yellow  and  scarlet  lake ;  for  red,  use  scarlet  lake,  crimson 
lake,  or  carmine ;  for  green,  mix  Prussian  blue  and  yellow  lake ; 
for  purple,  mix  red  and  blue.  Use  the  best  tube  paints  and 
camel-hair  brushes. 

No  style  of  painting  has  yet  been  produced  which  shows  trans- 
parent colors  to  such  advantage,  and  never  fails  to  attract 
attention  and  admirers  wherever  introduced. 

It  is  called  Oriental  from  the  fact  of  its  producing  effects  of 
coloring  equal  to  the  colors  of  Oriental  flowers,  and  the  plumage 
of  Oriental  birds. 


IbT  O?  I  Q  TJ 


Italian  Landscape  Painting  | 


tLL  honor  to  the  worthy  sire  who  produced  the  first  pic- 
tures upon  glass,  paper  or  canvass,  with  oil;  and, 
although  those  pictures  have  passed  from  sight  of  the 
present  generation,  we  live  to  enjoy  the  knowledge  given 
*to  us  through  history,  that  many  a  fine  artist  did  live  long 
enough  to  give  to  the  world  the  highest  productions  of  his 
artistic  hand ;  and,  although  passed  to  "  that  bourne  from  whence 
no  traveler  returns,"  his  teachings  are  still  practiced  among  men. 
And  no  man,  however  original  he  may  be,  can  to-day  sit  down 
and  paint  the  form  or  ornament  of  a  house,  but  that  it  will  be 
the  development  or  degradation  of  forms  practiced  by  the  artists 
of  early  days.  The  style  of  painting  which  is  given  below  is 
somewhat  ancient,  but  very  ornamental  and  useful;  and, 
although  to  an  extent  it  passed  from  existence  years  ago,  the 
lovers  of  decorative  art  have  again  revived  it  in  the  East,  and  it 
is  now  being  sought  after  and  practiced  by  thousands  on  account 
of  its  being  cheap  and  easy  to  attain.  This  plan  of  transferring 


86  ANTIQUE   PAINTING. 

the  engraving  from  paper  to  glass,  and  discarding  the  paper 
wholly,  is  simply  wonderful.  We  give  it  below : 

Procure  a  fine  quality  of  French  glass,  make  perfectly  clean 
with  alcohol,  then  apply  with  a  stiff  brush  a  coat  of  damar  var- 
nish ;  after  drying  about  an  hour,  apply  another  coat,  evenly  and 
smoothly;  this  allow  to  dry  about  ten  minutes,  or  just  long 
enough  to  make  it  sticky.  Procure  an  uncolored  steel  engraving 
that  you  may  desire  to  see  painted,  and  trim  off  all  the  paper  not 
connficted  with  the  picture.  Dampen  it  with  a  sponge  or  wet 
cloth,  and  while  yet  damp  place  the  engraving  on  the  glass  with 
the  face  to  the  varnish,  rubbing  with  your  dry  hand  or  cloth 
until  every  part  adheres  to  the  surface,  and  all  air  has  been  re- 
moved, rubbing  from  the  center. 

Lay  this  away  a  few  hours,  until  it  is  perfectly  dry,  then  dampen 
the  picture  again,  and  commence  rubbing  therefrom  the  paper ; 
continue  this  until  you  have  removed  every  vestige  of  the  same, 
nothing  remaining  upon  the  glass  but  the  face  of  the  engraving. 
Now  apply  a  coat  of  boiled  oil,  let  it  dry  fifteen  or  twenty  min- 
utes, and  apply  another,  or  a  coat  of  varnish',  evenly  and  smoothly ; 
after  laying  an  hour  or  two  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  paint.  As 
the  paper  has  been  all  removed  the  colors  will  strike  through 
readily.  Arrange  the  glass  to  the  light  in  such  a  manner  that 
you  may  see  through  it,  and  apply  the  colors  to  the  engraving  on 
the  back,  as  in  the  Grecian  oil.  The  outlines  and  shades  are 
already  produced  by  the  engraving,  and  all  that  is  necessary  now 
is  to  place  the  colors  where  they  belong,  which,  with  a  little 
practice,  can  soon  be  acquired. 

The  paints  used  are,  yellow  lake,  yellow  ochre,  chrome  yellow, 
chrome  green,  Prussian  blue,  burnt  sienna,  Vandyke  brown, 
ivory  black,  verdigris  green,  silver  white,  mixed  with  damar  var- 
nish. Use  brushes  as  in  Grecian  oiL 


GRECIAN  OIL  PAINTING, 


KECIAN  OIL  PAINTINGS  are  made  from 
^engravings  and  lithographs.    There  is  but 
little  of  it  done  in  this  country;  and, 
although  there  was  quite  an  interest  man- 
.  if ested  in  it  here  a  few  years  ago,  it  did 
not  live  long,  and  this  is  the  first  time  I 
have  seen  the  instructions  in  print  since 
or  before. 

We  select  the  engraving  most  desired  to  hang  upon 
our  walls,  (regardless  of  size),  and  place  it  upon  a 
frame  or  stretcher  with  small  tacks  or  glue ;  this  pre- 
pares it  for  the  work.  When  ready,  commence  by 
sponging  it  with  clean  water ;  when  dry,  saturate  it 
well  with  turpentine,  applied  with  a  large  size  paint  brush ;  when 
this  is  done,  apply  Grecian  varnish  in  the  same  way,  spreading  it 
smoothly  and  evenly  over  the  surface,  until  all  the  dry  spots  in 
the  paper  have  entirely  disappeared.  The  application  may  be 
made  on  either  side  of  the  picture.  When  done,  let  it  lay  level 
(with  the  face  down),  twenty-four  hours,  and  it  will  then  do  to 
paint,  if  free  from  spots  and  perfectly  transparent.  When  you 


88 


GRECIAN  OIL  PAINTING. 


commence  upon  the  back  to  paint,  follow  the  lines  with  those 
colors  necessary  to  make  it  look  natural ;  the  shading  being  made 
by  the  engraving,  nothing  is  necessary  but  to  apply  the  colors 
required.  Suit  your  taste  in  choosing  those  colors.  Mix  the 
paints  with  varnish  made  from  balsam  fir  three  parts,  alcohol 
two  parts,  and  spirits  turpentine  one  part ;  or  use  tube  paints, 
which  are  already  prepared. 

In  painting  the  figure  of  a  person,  if  the  eyes  are  blue,  mix 
Prussian  blue  and  white ;  for  dark  eyes  or  hair,  Vandyke  brown 
works  with  good  effect ;  for  flesh  color,  mix  red,  white  and  a  lit- 
tle yellow,  adding  a  little  more  red  for  lips  or  cheeks.  You  may 
suit  your  own  taste  in  regard  to  the  color  for  background,  but  I 
will  suggest  equal  parts  of  blue,  red,  green,  and  Vandyke  brown, 
covering  all  that  part  which  is  not  connected  with  the  object  you 
have  painted.  Don't  apply  a  second  color  until  the  first  is  per- 
fectly dry.  When  done,  give  the  face  a  coat  of  varnish. 

The  colors  suitable  for  this  painting  are  chrome  yellow,  yellow 
lake,  emerald  green,  carmine,  Prussian  blue,  burnt  sienna,  raw 
sienna,  Vandyke  brown,  ivory  black  and  silver  lake. 

The  brushes  required  are  one  large  varnish  brush,  with  two  or 
three  small  to  medium  size  camel  or  sable  hair  paint  brushes. 


GLASS  SIGN  WORK; 


FOR  LETTERING  DOOR  PLATES, 
ORNAMENTING  GLASS  WOKK  BOXES,  ETC. 


,ow  this  art  may  be  applied  to  making  signs  of 
every  description,  numbers  of  dwellings,  door 
plates,  ornamental  borders  for  pictures,  orna- 
menting work  boxes,  etc.,  which  are  made  at  a 
trifling  expense,  and  unsurpassed  for  brilliancy. 
First.  Clean  well  the  glass  to  be  used,  with 
alcohol.  Second.  Wet  with  your  tongue  the 
side  cleaned,  and  immediately  lay  over  the 
whole  of  that  side  a  coat  of  gold  or  silver  leaf.  Third.  Let  this 
dry  on  —  it  will  take  from  two  to  four  minutes.  Fourth.  When 
the  leaf  has  dried  on  the  glass,  polish  it  with  a  ball  of  cotton. 
Some  of  the  leaf  may  possibly  be  rubbed  off  by  the  polishing,  but 
this  is  of  no  consequence.  Fifth.  After  polishing,  wet  again 
with  your  tongue  the  whole  side  you  have  polished,  and  lay 
another  coating  of  leaf  over  it.  Let  this  dry.  Sixth.  After  the 
second  coat  of  leaf  is  dry,  polish  it  as  before,  with  the  ball  of 
cotton,  and  then  your  sign  or  door  plate  will  be  ready  for  let- 
tering. 

As  a  border  will  add  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  plate,  I 
mil  now  instruct  you  how  to  make  one.    Kule  with  the  point  of 


90  GLASS  SIGN  WOBK. 

a  needle  two  lines  around  the  edge  of  the  plate,  the  outside  line 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  edge.  After  the  lines  have  been 
ruled,  wet  your  pencil  brush,  and  with  it  moisten  the  leaf  laying 
outside  of  the  space  between  the  lines  you  have  ruled,  and  remove 
with  the  brush  the  leaf  thus  moistened,  working  gently  from  the 
lines.  Your  border  is  now  made. 

Your  next  step  is  to  put  the  lettering  on  the  glass.  To  do  this, 
first  measure  the  height  of  your  letters,  then  rule  with  the  needle 
two  lines  as  far  apart  as  the  letters  are  high.  "When  this  is  done, 
lay  the  letters  on  the  leaf,  one  at  a  tune,  beginning  at  the  right 
hand,  and  placing  the  back  of  the  letters  up,  or  backwards. 
Hold  the  letters  on  firmly  with  your  left  hand,  and  with  your 
right  mark  around  them  with  a  needle.  When  you  have  marked 
around  all  the  letters  in  this  way,  wet  with  your  tongue  the  pen- 
cil brush,  and  apply  it  to  all  the  leaf  on  the  glass,  except  what  is 
needed  for  the  letters  and  border ;  then  remove  the  leaf  thus  wet 
by  rubbing  it  gently  with  the  brush. 

The  next  process  is  to  apply  the  Japan.  Do  this  with  a  small 
paint  brush,  and  cover  the  whole  of  the  side  which  has  been  cov- 
ered with  the  silver  leaf.  It  will  require  two  coats,  and  after 
these  are  dry  you  have  an  elegant  plate. 

All  that  now  remains  to  be  done  is  to  place  the  plate  in  a  frame, 
to  do  this  apply  a  little  putty  to  the  edges  of  the  glass,  and  set  it 
in  the  frame ;  then  lay  upon  the  back  a  piece  of  paper  of  the 
same  size,  and  over  that  a  piece  of  tin,  and  fill  up  the  remaining 
space  with  plaster  of  Paris.  Your  door  plate  is  now  complete. 

To  ornament  glass  work  boxes,  flowering,  etc.,  proceed  as  above. 

Articles  Used.  A  small  camel-hair  pencil  brush,  cost  three 
cents ;  blue  or  black  enamel,  or  Japan,  per  gill,  25  cents ;  selected 
silver  leaf,  per  book,  (24  sheets),  24  cents;  patterns  for  letters, 
per  set,  37£  cents ;  patterns  for  numbers,  per  set,  25  cents. 

[NOTE. — A  gill  of  Japan  will  answer  for  fifty  signs.  A  book 
of  silver  leaf  will  answer  for  six  or  eight  door  plates.] 


FOE  THE  EAST  AND  INEXPENSIVE 

DECORATION  OF  WINDOWS,  CHURCHES,  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS,  AHD 
PRIVATE  HOUSES. 


T|ITREMANIE  is  the  process  by  which  glass  of  all  kinds  may  be 
W  easily,  durably,  inexpensively,  and  elegantly  decorated  by  any 
person.  Diaphanie,  which  this  art  supersedes,  was  a  great 
success,  (no  less  than  250,000  sheets  of  designs  having  been  sold 
in  England  alone).  It  had,  however,  its  defects ;  the  sheets 
being  applied  with  transfer  varnish,  bubbles  of  air  sometimes 
remained  between  the  design  and  the  glass,  which  in  the  subse- 
quent process  of  rubbing  off  the  paper,  resulted  in  holes ;  this 
rubbing  off,  moreover,  required  much  time,  patience,  and  care, 
and  was  rarely  perfectly  performed.  These  defects  are  obviated 
by  Vitremanie.  By  this  method  the  designs,  after  being  covered 
with  Glucine,  may  be  applied  to  the  glass  with  water  only,  and 
the  paper  removed  entire,  a  few  minutes  sufficing  for  the  opera- 
tion, and  nothing  being  left  upon  the  glass  but  the  design  in 
colors  of  unclouded  brilliancy  and  transparency. 


92  V1TREMANIE. 

The  Materials  Required  are  as  follows:  The  printed 
designs,  three  brushes,  (two  of  camel's  hair  and  one  of  hog's 
hair),  a  bottle  of  each,  Glucine  and  enamel  varnish,  a  roller,  a 
sponge,  a  little  blotting  paper,  and  a  pair  of  scissors. 

The  instructions  are  very  simple.  With  the  camel-hair  brush 
pass  a  coating  of  Glucine  over  the  colored  face  of  the  designs 
that  are  proposed  to  be  used,  care  being  taken  that  the  Glucine 
does  not  touch  the  plain  side  of  the  paper ;  the  sheets  of  the  de- 
signs should  be  laid  flat  to  dry,  they  should  be  left  two  or  three 
days  before  being  used,  and  they  will  remain  good  for  three 
months,  or  even  longer. 

To  apply  the  design  to  the  glass  it  should  be  wetted  with  water 
on  both  sides,  the  glass  should  also  be  wetted  ;  lay  the  design  on 
the  glass,  and  roll  well  down — all  air  bubbles  will  be  easily 
removed  by  this  means — keep  the  plain  side  of  the  paper  wet  for 
a  few  minutes,  then,  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  carefully  raise  a 
corner  of  the  paper  and  pull  it  gently  off ;  the  work  is  now  to  be 
washed  with  a  camel-hair  brush  and  water,  and  afterwards  dried 
by  placing  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  over  the  work,  and  rolling  it ; 
leave  it  now  for  a  few  hours,  then  coat  it  with  enamel  varnish, 
and  the  work  is  finished.  In  removing  the  paper  it  is  sometimes 
better,  particularly  when  the  design  is  large,  to  carefully  scratch 
a  hole  in  the  paper,  and  tear  it  off  in  pieces  from  the  center. 
The  work  is  more  easily  performed  on  free  glass,  cut  to  the  proper 
sizes,  and  afterwards  fixed  over  the  glass  already  in  the  window, 
by  means  of  a  bead ;  it  may,  however,  be  done  upon  the  window 
as  it  stands. 

The  designs  may  be  arranged  to  fit  any  window,  strips  of  lead 
foil  applied  with  gum  being  used  for  the  purpose  of  covering  the 
edges  of  the  borders,  groundings,  etc.,  where  they  join.  For  cir- 
cles and  other  shapes  the  strips  of  lead  may  be  stretched  with  the 
thumb  and  fingers  to  any  pattern  desired,  the  creases  being 
smoothed  by  the  handle  of  a  knife  or  paper-cutter,  slightly 
wetted. 


HE  Diaphanie  prints  for  transferring  to  glass  are 
very  similar  to  the  Decalcomanies ;  they  are  col- 
ored lithographs  arranged  on  paper  for  transfer- 
ring to  glass,  to  represent  stained  glass,  and  is 
equally  as  pretty,  and  not  so  expensive.  By  this 
plan  you  may  ornament  your  church  windows, 
lamp  shades,  glass  work  hoxes,  or  wherever  stained 
glass  is  employed. 

The  materials  required  are  a  bottle  of  fixatif  for 
fastening  it  to  the  glass,  one  or  two  medium  size 

brushes,  a  bottle  of  transparent  varnish,  a  plate  of  glass,  and 

your  design. 

The  Application  is  as  follows :  Lay  on  a  coat  of  the  fixatif 
to  the  face  of  the  design,  and  place  it  upon  the  glass,  pressing  it 
closely  and  evenly,  that  it  may  adhere  perfectly  to  the  entire 
surface  of  the  glass.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  may  be  well  to  lay 
over  the  design  a  piece  of  heavy  damp  paper,  and  then  roll  it  to 
the  glass  Arith  a  small  roller  used  for  that  purpose ;  when  this  is 
done,  and  it  is  dry,  apply  a  coat  of  transparent  varnish  with  a 
flat  camel-hair  brush. 

Some  of  the  designs  used  are  as  follows :  There  are  the  Japa- 
nese and  China  figures,  autumn  leaves,  Grecian  and  Egyptian 
heads,  birds  of  paradise,  soldiers,  national  figures  in  bronze,  but- 
terflies, angels  with  wings,  roses,  fruits  and  flowers,  buildings, 
landscapes,  etc.,  besides  ten  thousand  other  choice  selections 
which  can  be  furnished  to  you  by  mail,  at  catalogue  prices. 


FAINTING-  DN 


SILK,  ISUTIN  IflHD  (VELVET 


WITH  THE  ENGLISH  OIL  COLOBS. 


:ROM  all  the  different  styles  of  modern  painting,  we 
'select  this  as  the  most  admired,  and  seemingly  the  most 
^sought  after  by  ladies  of  taste,  fashion,  or  wealth;  for 
nothing  will  aid  more  in  beautifying  the  dress  than  a 
1^  beautiful  flower  or  butterfly  painted  upon  the  little  satin  or 
silk  scarf  which  surrounds  the  neck,  the  collar  or  cuffs ; 
your  monogram  on  one  corner  the  pocket  handkerchief,  or 
any  other  portion  of  the  dress  desired  by  the  lady  artist  and  lady 
of  taste. 

Transferring.  First  get  the  outlines  of  the  picture  you  wish 
to  paint,  by  use  of  transfer  paper,  or  in  the  following  manner : 
Lay  the  picture  upon  the  silk  to  receive  the  painting,  and  with  a 
needle-point  prick  through  the  picture,  following  closely  the  out- 
lines, until  you  have  passed  over  the  whole,  holding  it  to  its  place 
with  one  hand — with  the  other  rub  over  the  perforated  part  a 
black  powder  or  fine  crayon.  For  this  purpose  use  a  piece  of 
velvet,  rubbing  it  sufficiently  to  pass  the  powder  through  the 
holes.  On  raising  the  picture  you  have  the  outlines  of  it  left  on 
the  silk,  which  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  paints.  This  method 
is  merely  given  to  aid  the  beginner  in  getting  started ;  those  more 


PAINTING  ON  SILK,  SATIN  AND  VELVET. 


95 


familiar  with  painting  can  commence  at  once  upon  the  silk, 
without  the  aid  of  transferring. 

The  Painting.  Stretch  your  silk  upon  a  board,  and  lay  the 
board  flat.  After  you  have  the  outlines,  proceed  with  fine 
pointed  brush,  the  same  as  other  fine  painting.  Do  not  place  a 
brush  full  of  paint  upon  the  work  at  once,  but  use  paint  lightly 
at  first,  otherwise  it  may  crack  and  harm  the  picture. 

In  painting  on  velvet,  with  oil,  place  such  colors  as  are  intended 
to  be  used,  on  blotting  paper  for  a  couple  of  days,  until  the  paper 
absorbs  the  oil.  This  will  leave  the  colors  in  better  condition  for 
this  kind  of  work.  Use  colors  lightly — a  great  deal  of  stippling  is 
needed.  For  raised  work,  or  what  is  sometimes  called  Kensing- 
ton painting,  use  sugar  of  lead,  with  the  colors  as  a  medium. 

N.  B.  Use  for  this  painting  the  English  Oil  Colors,  and  mix 
Math  gold  size  or  opaque  mixture. 

After  the  work  is  completed,  if  it  looks  dull,  you  can  Hr»g  it 
out  again  by  using  the  sicatif  gently  upon  the  surface. 


J^TAINING 


AND  IVORY 


fELLOW.  Diluted  nitric  acid  will  produce  a  fine  yellow  on 
wood ;  sometimes  it  makes  a  brown,  and  if  used  strong,  it 
will  be  nearly  black. 

MAHOGANY  COLOR  Is  produced  by  a  mixture  of  madder,  Bra- 
zil wood,  and  logwood,  dissolved  in  water  and  put  on  hot.  The 
proportions  must  be  varied,  according  to  the  tint  required. 

BLACK.  Brush  the  wood  several  times  over  with  a  hot  decoc- 
tion of  logwood,  and  then  with  an  iron  lacquer ;  or,  if  this  cannot 
be  had,  a  strong  solution  of  nut-galls. 

KED  can  be  made  by  a  solution  of  dragon's  blood  in  spirits  of 
wine.  This  stain  is  to  be  laid  on  the  wood  boiling  hot,  and  before 
it  dries  it  should  be  laid  over  with  alum  water. 

BLUE.  Ivory  may  be  stained  blue  thus :  Soak  the  ivory  in  a 
solution  of  verdigris  and  nitric  acid,  which  will  make  it  green, 
then  dip  it  into  a  solution  of  pearlash  boiling  hot,  and  it  will 
turn  blue. 

To  stain  ivory,  black,  the  same  process  as  for  wood  may  be 
employed.  » 

Purple  may  be  produced  by  soaking  the  ivory  in  a  solution  of 
sal-ammoniac  and  four  times  its  weight  of  nitrous  acid. 


TO  PRODUCE  A  CRYSTALLINE  SURFACE- 


ON  PAPER,  WOOD  AND  GLASS. 


CONCEHTKATED  solution  of  salt,  acetate  of  soda,  Epsom  salt, 
etc.,  mixed  with  Dextrine  in  the  cold,  and  laid  on  thinly  as 
possible,  with  a  broad,  soft  brush,  and  allowed  to  dry.  The 
paper  must  be  sized  first,  otherwise  the  formation  of  crystals  will 
be  irregular,  on  account  of  the  absorption  of  the  liquid.  The 
coating  on  glass  is  rendered  adhesive  by  brushing  it  with  a  solu- 
tion of  shellac  in  alcohol. 

Colored  glass  arranged  in  this  way  makes  a  pretty  transparency. 

A  beautiful  adhesive  coating  of  pearly  lustre  upon  paper  pro- 
duces a  very  handsome  card. 


"Dut  nf  Art  Culture  grows  RefinemEnt," 


HINA  PAINTING. 


PAINTING   ON 

CHINA,  PORCELAIN,  EARTHENWARE  &  ENAMEL 


Colors  Used,  and  tie  Process  oi  Burning  them  in. 

the  present  time  this  art  is  receiving  a  great  deal  of 
attention  among  the  American  peo- 
'ple,  and  especially  the  intelligent 
class,  who  are  taking  every  opportun- 
ity of  informing  themselves  in  regard  to 
the  plan  of  moulding  the  various  orna- 
ments for  use,  the  art  of  decorating  them, 
the  particular  kinds  of  paints  used,  and  the 
operation  through  which  they  pass  in  the 
burning  in  of  the  colors.  It  would  be  use- 
less for  me  to  attempt  a  book  on  art  that 
would  meet  the  wants  of  the  people,  and 
omit  China  Painting,  which  is  gaining  uni- 
versal favor  among  the  higher  classes  in 
eastern  cities. 

The  art  is  applied  directly  to  the  orna- 
mentation of  the  house,  which  makes  it 
much  sought  after  by  ladies,  who  take  pride 


100  CHINA  PAINTING. 

in  ornamenting  their  china  and  earthenware  by  the  use  of  the 
La  Croix  Enamel  Colors,  which  are  arranged  especially  for  this 
kind  of  painting. 

After  the  paints  are  applied,  the  ware  requires  a  certain  amount 
of  heat  to  fix  the  colors,  and  prevent  it  from  being  effaced  by 
washing.  Commence  work  by  first 

Tracing  the  Drawing.  For  tracing,  details  should  be  left 
out  as  much  as  possible,  or  at  any  rate  indicated  soberly. 

DIEECT  OUTLINE.  If  the  pupil  can  draw  well,  she  will  outline 
her  subject  lightly  on  the  object  she  wishes  to  paint,  directly, 
without  tracing,  by  means  of  a  lithographic  pencil. 

TRANSFERRING.  When  you  want  to  make  a  minute  and  com- 
plicated drawing,  you  are  obliged  to  transfer,  to  avoid  getting 
double  lines  on  the  china. 

Before  transferring,  prepare  your  piece  of  ware  as  follows : 
Pour  three  drops  of  alcohol  on  the  plaque  or  white  plate  intended 
for  decoration. 

It  is  very  easy  to  trace  on  a  perfectly  flat  surface.  We  shall 
mention  several  ways. 

FIRST  METHOD.  Tracing  by  Rubbing.  After  having  traced 
from  the  engraving,  or  original  model  to  be  reproduced,  the  out- 
line of  your  subject  (figure,  ornament,  or  landscape),  with  one 
of  the  lithographic  pencils,  you  reverse  the  tracing  over  a  sheet 
of  white  paper,  and  go  over  the  outline  again  very  carefully  witli 
the  same  pencil ;  this  being  done,  prepare  your  piece  of  china 
with  medium  as  we  have  just  described.  The  vegetal  tracing 
paper  is  then  fixed,  by  means  of  little  lumps  of  modeling  wax,  on 
the  exact  spot  the  subject  is  to  occupy ;  and  when  that  is  done, 
you  have  only  to  rub  all  over  the  outline  with  an  ivory  knife,  to 
make  the  lead  that  is  on  the  vegetal  tracing  paper  convey  itself 
distinctly  on  to  the  previously  prepared  oiled  enamel. 

SECOND  METHOD.  Tracing  with  a  Tracing  Point.  Take 
either  black,  blue,  or  carmine  transferring  paper,  according  to 
the  tint  of  the  painting  that  is  to  be  done.  The  carmine  gives 


CHINA  PAINTING.  101 

all  security  for  the  success  of  the  painting ;  it  does  not  soil  it. 
When  the  piece  of  paper  has  been  rubbed  with  carmine  from  a 
soft  crayon,  after  taking  great  care  to  remove  what  is  superfluous 
it  is  cut  to  the  size  of  the  subject,  or  rather  to  that  of  the  space 
you  are  to  paint  on. 

To  make  sure  of  tracing  on  the  exact  spot,  you  must  draw  a 
horizontal  line  in  the  middle  of  your  drawing,  one  also  in  the 
middle  of  the  tracing  paper,  and  one  as  well  on  the  porcelain, 
with  crosses  and  letters  to  each  end  as  landmarks ;  two  crosses 
marked  A  and  B  on  the  horizontal  line  of  the  enamel,  and  -}-  -{- 
a  b  on  the  horizontal  line  of  the  tracing  paper.  The  piece  is 
prepared  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  spirits  of  wine.  At  the  end 
of  two  or  three  minutes  you  place  your  drawing  on  the  porcelain 
in  accordance  with  the  marks  -\ — \-  a  b,  taking  care  to  place  the 
middle  lines  one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  a  on  A,  and  b  on  B ; 
you  fix  the  vegetal  tracing  paper  by  means  of  small  bits  of 
gummed  paper,  or  else  with  little  balls  of  modeling  wax ;  the 
sheet  of  tracing  paper  being  quite  firm,  you  slide  beneath  it  the 
piece  of  paper  rubbed  with  carmine,  blue,  or  black  lead ;  you 
then  take  a  porcupine  quill  with  a  fine  point,  and  without  lean- 
ing too  hard  you  go  over  all  the  outline.  You  must  be  careful 
not  to  press  your  fingers  on  the  drawing,  for  it  often  causes  the 
deposit  of  powder  to  be  of  the  same  color  as  your  transferring 
paper,  which  spoils  the  result  and  prevents  careful  painting. 
Before  finishing  all  the  work,  lift  up  a  corner  of  the  overlying 
paper  to  see  if  the  tracing  does  mark.  It  will  be  but  an  affair 
of  habit  to  trace  well,  for  it  is  by  experiments  frequently  re- 
peated that  one  comes  to  know  exactly  the  amount  of  strength 
to  be  used  so  that  the  transferring  paper  may  mark  sufficiently. 
This  paper  lasts  a  long  time,  and  improves  as  it  grows  old ;  you 
must  prevent  it  from  getting  creased.  For  this,  each  time  it 
has  been  used,  it  should  be  put  away  into  a  brown  paper  cover, 
wherein  the  tracing  papers  are  also  placed. 

THIRD  METHOD  is  by  pricking  the  outline  with  small  holes, 
and  in  making  what  is  called  a  '•  Poncif ," 


102  CHINA  PAINTING. 

In  a  bottle  containing  alcohol  the  brushes  and  the  dabbers 
are  cleaned  after  each  day's  work.  To  preserve  these  useful  in- 
struments it  is  indispensable  never  to  leave  any  color  in  them ; 
you  must  take  care  to  wipe  them  well  after  this  washing,  and 
even  to  blow  a  little  on  them,  to  make  the  spirits  of  wine  evap- 
orate, for  if  any  were  to  remain  it  would  spoil  the  color  and 
take  away  the  painting  already  finished.  With  a  few  drops  of 
spirits  of  wine,  the  most  loaded  palette  can  be  instantaneously 
cleaned,  and  the  driest  painting  can  be  effaced.  For  this  reason 
I  recommend  that  the  little  bottle  of  spirits  of  wine  be  kept  al- 
ways far  away  from  you  during  your  work ;  if  a  single  drop 
were  to  fall  on  the  painting,  it  would  immediately  sinear  and 
obliterate  the  work  done. 

Cleaning  brushes  with  spirits  of  wine  has  to  be  done  every 
day.  From  time  to  time  a  more  thorough  cleaning  with  soft 
soap  is  resorted  to ;  the  brushes  are  steeped  in  the  soap,  and  are 
washed  the  next  day  only. 


PORCELAIN   AND   EARTHENWARE.  —  COMPOSITION, 
USE  AND  MIXING  OF  THE  COLORS. 


GENERAL  INFORMATION. 

E  borrow  from  M.  Lacroix  his  classification  of  colors, 
which  is  very  practical  with  regard  to  their  employ- 
ment in  painting : 

"  CLASSIFICATION  OF  COLORS  WITH  RESPECT  TO  IRON. — 
Iron  plays  an  important  part  in  the  composition  of  a 
great  many  enamel  colors ;  for  this  reason  I  have  taken  it 
as  a  standard  for  my  classification  of  colors  into  three  groups. 

"  FIRST  GROUP.— Colors  that  do  not  contain  any  iron :  First, 
the  white ;  secondly,  the  blues ;  thirdly,  the  colors  from  gold. 

"A  horn  or  ivory  knife  is  preferable  for  the  use  of  colors  of 
this  group. 


CHINA  PAINTING.  103 

"A  glass  nrnller  is  still  better  than  knives. 

"  SECOND  GKOUP. — Colors  with  but  little  trace  of  iron.  This 
group  includes  the  yellows  and  greens,  several  of  which  colors 
contain  iron  in  small  quantities. 

"  THIRD  GROUP. — Colors  with  an  iron  basis,  or  of  which  iron 
is  one  of  the  coloring  parts :  First,  the  reds,  fleshes,  red  browns, 
and  violets  of  iron ;  secondly,  the  browns,  yellow  browns,  ochres, 
blacks  and  a  greater  part  of  the  greys." 

The  enamel  colors  usually  designated  by  the  name  of  iron 
colors  are :  All  the  browns ;  the  greys,  excepting  platina  grey ; 
the  blacks,  minus  iridium  black ;  the  ochres ;  the  reds,  and  the 
violets  of  iron. 

The  enamel  colors  said  to  be  with  a  golden  basis  are :  The 
carmines ;  crimson  lake ;  the  purples,  and  the  violets  of  gold. 

TESTS. — The  amount  of  flux  added  to  the  coloring  oxides  for 
the  manufacture  of  enamel  colors  varies  according  to  the  color ; 
this  difference,  joined  to  the  diversity  of  the  chemical  elements, 
causes  actions  in  the  firing  which  may  modify  certain  colors  and 
even  make  them  disappear  entirely ;  it  is  said  expressively  that 
they  have  been  eaten  up,  devoured  by  the  fire.  We  shall  cite,  as 
an  example,  the  mixture  of  ivory  yellow  with  carmine,  as  one  of 
those  which  decompose  in  the  firing.  Other  causes  act  likewise 
on  enamel  colors  during  firing ;  the  intensity,  more  or  less  great, 
of  the  heat,  the  thickness,  and  the  amount  of  oil  in  the  color, 
the  way  it  is  used,  etc. 

In  order  to  well  understand  the  various  influences,  and  to  se- 
cure yourself  against  accidents,  you  must  be  continually  making 
tests  of  the  mixtures  yourself;  it  is  the  only  way  to  paint  with 
safety. 

It  is  indispensable  for  the  test  to  be  double,  that  is,  on  two 
small  bits  of  precisely  the  same  manufacture  of  china  as  the 
piece  you  wish  to  paint.  The  same  mixture  is  made  on  both 
small  pieces,  they  are  both  dried,  and  one  only  is  fired  in  order 
to  be  able  to  judge  what  change  is  caused  by  the  firing,  by  com-t 
paring  it  with  the  unfired  test  you  have  kept  by  you.  Besides, 


104  CHINA  PAINTING. 

you  will  be  able  to  make  sure  of  a  satisfactory  result  by  compar- 
ing your  experiments  with  the  test  tiles  and  plates  of  fired  colors. 

Mixed  colors  should  be  stirred  with  the  brush  when  used ;  with- 
out this  precaution  they  would  separate ;  light  blue  would  rise  on 
dark  blue,  yellow  on  green,  ivory  yellow  on  carnation. 

Some  hints  follow  which  it  will  be  advantageous  to  verify  and 
to  carry  out  by  tests.  They  apply  generally  to  painting  on  por- 
celain or  earthenware  for  the  ordinary  muffle. 

FUSIBILITY.  Hard  colors  (those  which  require  the  greatest 
heat  to  make  them  fuse)  spoil  and  often  destroy  those  of  a  softer 
flux  (that  fuse  more  easily).  The  flux  added  by  the  manufac- 
turer to  the  coloring  oxide  lightens  the  tint  of  the  color ;  dark 
colors  are  therefore  generally  harder  than  light  ones.  In  the 
palette  of  M.  Lacroix  the  colors  more  fusible  than  the  rest, 
although  taking  the  same  time  to  fire,  are  light  sky-blue,  light 
carmine  A,  pearl  grey,  warm  or  russet  grey,  and  ivory  yellow,  all 
light  colors, 

THICKNESS.  The  tint  of  enamel  colors  get  darker  when  you 
increase  their  thickness.  But  you  must  beware  of  doing  it  too 
much.  Light  and  fusible  colors  used  too  thick,  blister  in  firing ; 
it  is  prudent  to  give  them  only  a  medium  thickness. 

You  should  apply  in  drops  those  colors  only  that  are  specially 
designed  for  the  purpose ;  permanent  white,  permanent  yellow, 
and  relief.  They  hold  on  earthenware,  but  their  use  on  porcelain 
is  liable  to  failure. 

MEDIUMS.  Experience  will  prove  that  if  too  much  oil  of  tur- 
pentine is  added  to  the  colors  used,  which  is  called  adding  "  fat," 
they  will  craze  in  the  firing.  Make  some  trials  by  exaggerating 
this  fault.  You  will  remark  nevertheless  that  colors  applied 
very  thin,  although  with  much  "  fat,"  do  not  craze.  The  cracks 
caused  in  the  firing,  by  the  action  of  the  resinous  part  of  the  oil, 
which  evaporates  and  causes  the  white  of  the  enamel  to  reappear, 
is  called  crazing. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  WORK.  It  is  very  important  in  the  first 
painting  to  use  the  most  fusible  light  colors,  and  those  most  easily 


CHINA  PAINTING.  105 

developed  in  the  first  firing,  which  is  the  strongest.  -  Commence 
always  011  a  lighter  scale  than  the  final  tint,  for  in  pottery  paint- 
ing any  color  made  too  dark  in  firing  cannot  be  made  light 
again.  When  the  mixtures  have  produced,  for  example,  some 
browns  or  russet  hues  which  have  not  glazed  in  the  first  firing, 
the  glazing  is  brought  back  by  a  little  fusible  light  grey,  applied 
before  the  second  firing  for  retouches.  These  short  general  in- 
structions will  be  resumed  and  developed  in  the  following 
lessons. 


SPECIAL  INFORMATION  CONCERNING  PAINTING 
COLORS. 


MODE  OF  USE  —  MIXTURES — CONCOEDANCE    OF    ENAMEL    WITH 

MOIST  AND  OIL  COLORS,  AND  THEIK  USUAL 

TECHNICAL  NAMES. 


'HITES,  belonging  to  the  first  group.    White  is  obtained 
by  permamtit  white,  (for  high  lights),  and  Chinese  white, 
a  color  of  very  limited  use  in  painting,  it  being  prefer- 
able to  keep  the  white  of  the  china  when  possible. 

Permanent  white,  alone  or  mixed  with  other  colors  for  height- 
ening, which  is  called  high  light,  or  relief,  requires  perfect  grind- 
ing. It  should  be  tried  by  repeated  and  well  fired  tests  before 
using  it  for  important  works.  It  is  lifted  up  with  the  point  of 
the  brush,  and  laid  without  spreading.  It  could  not  bear  two 
firings ;  it  is  put  at  the  second  firing,  which  is  always  less  pow- 
erful. 

BLUES.  (First  group.)  In  his  character  as  a  chemist,  M.  La- 
croix  gives  us,  in  his  work  already  quoted,  the  general  reason  for 
excessive  care  in  using  blues  •  "All  the  blues,  with  very  few  ex« 


106  CHINA  PAINTING. 

oeptions,  derive  their  color  from  cobalt.  ...  As  the  mixture 
of  cobalt  and  iron  produces,  proportion  ably,  tints  varying  from 
light  grey  to  black,  it  is  well  to  take  great  precautions  in  painting 
when  blues  are  used  with  reds,  fleshes,  browns  and  ochres.  It 
follows  as  a  natural  consequence,  that  when  you  wish  to  have 
some  beautiful  shades  of  blue,  you  must  avoid  using  brushes 
which  have  already  served  for  one  of  the  iron  colors,  and  have 
not  been  properly  cleaned." 

Blues  are  laid  on  in  very  thin  coatings,  particularly  blue  green. 

Ordinary  oil  medium. 

The  first  painting  is  but  little  loaded,  and  is  shaded  with  the 
same  tint  in  a  second  coating,  added  to  grey  in  the  last  firing  for 
the  darkest  parts. 

Here  are  some  notes  on  the  concordance  of  enamel  colors  with 
oil  colors  and  their  usual  names. 

Sky  Blue — sky  blue. 

Light  Blue — light  sky  blue. 

Blue  Verditer — two-thirds  ultramarine  blue;  one-third  deep 
blue  green.  Slight  oiling. 

Barbeau  Blue,  or  Smalt — Victoria  blue. 

Marine  Blue  (in  oils) — half  Victoria  blue,  half  carmine  No.  2. 

Cobalt — deep  ultramarine. 

Prussian  Blue — one-third  dark  blue ;  one-third  Victoria  blue ; 
one-third  ultramarine;  a  touch  of  grey  No.  2;  a  very  little 
touch  of  purple. 

Indigo — dark  blue  ;  a  touch  of  raven  black. 

CARMINES  AND  PURPLE.  (First  Group.)  Carmines  must  be 
used  very  thin,  lest  they  should  turn  yellow  in  the  firing.  You 
must  put  but  little  oil  to  avoid  shrivelling.  Never  touch  them 
with  a  knife ;  the  brush  must  be  sufficient.  It  is  also  recom- 
mended, when  using  purple,  to  fill  the  brush  well  and  to  turn  it 
round  and  round  to  dissolve  the  little  gritty  lumps  generally 
found  at  the  opening  of  the  tubes.  When  a  pink  color  has  had. 
an  addition  of  purple  to  it,  spirits  of  lavender  with  a  drop  of  oil 
of  turpentine  should  be  pref erred  to  turpentine  only, 


CHINA  PAINTING.  107 

All  the  carmines  are  shaded  with  the  same  tint.  Purples  are 
also  used  for  strong  shadows,  and  blues  for  reflected  lights.  If 
light  tints  or  pinks  are  made  with  light  yellows,  these  colors  must 
not  be  spread  one  over  the  other,  but  side  by  side,  otherwise  the 
carmine  tints  would  be  injured.  In  the  first  painting,  carmines 
and  purples  are  to  be  laid  on  very  light ;  it  is  only  in  the  second 
firing  that  strengthening  touches  are  made. 

"  When  carmines  are  fired  in  the  muffle  at  too  low  a  tempera- 
ture, silver  takes  the  upper  hand  and  the  color  has  a  dirty  yellow 
tint ;  if,  on  the  contrary,' the  temperature  is  too  high,  the  silver 
Bhade  is  completely  destroyed,  and  the  carmine  becomes  lilac  or 
violet,  which  explains  the  difficulty  in  firing  carmines.  The 
same  thing  takes  place  with  purples,  but  in  a  considerably  less 
perceptible  degree,  because  of  the  shade  being  much  darker  and 
cassius  being  in  a  larger  quantity." — A.  Lacroix. 

ENAMEL  CARMINES  AND  PURPLES  are  equivalent  to  the  oil 
colors  of  the  same  name. 

Light  Pink — Carmine  A  and  carmine  No.  1. 

Deeper  Pink — Carmine  No.  2  with  carmine  No.  3. 

Laky  Red — Crimson  lake. 

Purple  Lake — Carmine  No.  1  and  a  touch  of  purple. 

Peony  Pink — Half  ruby  purple ;  half  carmine  No.  1. 

Chinese  Pink — Carmine  No.  3 ;  touch  of  ruby  purple. 

Lakes  (in  oils) — Carmines. 

Crimson  Lake  (in  oils) — Purples. 

Red  Purple — Deep  purple. 

Crimson — Crimson  purple. 

LILACS  AND  VIOLETS.  (1st  group,  except  the  violet  of  iron, 
which  belongs  to  the  3d  group.)  The  same  precautions  are  re- 
quired in  using  lilacs  as  for  carmines. 

Lilac — Half  carmine  No.  1;  half  sky-blue;  a  touch  of 
carmine  No.  3. 

Mauve — Half  carmine  A ;  half  ultramarine. 

Magenta— Two-thirds  carmine  No.  3;  one-third  deep  ultra- 
marine; a  touch  of  ruby  purple. 


108  CHINA  PAINTING. 

Violet — Light  violet  of  gold. 

Deep  Violet — Deep  violet  of  gold. 

Light  Pansy — Light  violet  of  gold,  with  a  touch  of  deep  ultra- 
marine. 

Deep  Pansy — Deep  violet  of  gold,  sustained  more  or  less  and 
with  an  addition  of  ultramarine. 

REDS.  (3d  group,  except  the  purples.)  Red,  a  predominant 
color,  is  nearly  always  used  alone.  Thus,  the  reddish  tips  of 
green  leaves  are  obtained  by  placing  the  red  next  the  green,  but 
not  by  putting  it  over.  With  the  dark  colors,  on  the  contrary,  it 
is  red  that  disappears. 

Chinese  vermilion  in  oils  has  an  equivalent  tint  in  coral  for 
porcelain  applied  thin ;  backgrounds  are  made  of  it,  but  it  would 
be  risking  a  great  deal  to  use  it  in  painting,  on  account  of  its 
extreme  sensibility  in  firing ;  besides,  it  suffers  no  mixing.  Scar- 
let vermilion  is  approached  by  adding  a  touch  of  flesh  No.  1  to 
capucine  red,  and  laying  on  this  mixture  in  a  moderate  thickness. 

Capucine  Red — Capucine  red. 

Poppy  Red — Half  capucine  red ;  half  deep  purple.  A  satis- 
factory result  is  obtained  only  at  the  third  application  of  this 
mixture,  which  loses  at  each  firing. 

Madder — Capucine  red ;  a  touch  of  purple  and  of  carmine 
No.  3. 

Gules  (hi  heraldry) — Capucine  red  and  a  touch  of  purple. 

Venetian  Red  (in  oils) — Violet  of  iron  (third  group). 

YELLOWS.  (Second  group.)  Certain  yellows  greatly  destroy 
the  colors  mixed  with  them,  and  even  make  them  disappear  en- 
tirely. This  disadvantage  is  perceived  when  too  much  ivory  yel- 
low is  mixed  with  red,  or  when  that  yellow  is  placet!  abundantly 
over  other  colors. 

"The  yellow  called  silver  yellow  contains  no  silver ;  it  is  com- 
posed of  jonquil  yellow  and  orange  yellow.  Yellows  that  contain 
no  iron  (yellow  for  mixing  and  jonquil  yellow)  are  generally  pre- 
ferred for  making  fresh  greens.  On  the  other  hand,  for  mixing 


CHINA  PAINTING.  109 

with  iron  colors,  yellows  that  contain  already  this  metal  are 
used." — A.  Lacroix. 

Light  yellows  scale  very  easily ;  the  dark  yellows,  being  less 
fusible,  need  to  be  used  moderately  thin  in  the  first  painting,  for 
the  first  fire  develops  them ;  at  the  second  firing  they  increase  in 
depth,  and  if  they  are  too  heavily  loaded  they  cannot  be  made 
lighter  again. 

Avoid  using  yellows  next  to  blues,  which  would  produce  a  green 
tint.  For  the  centers  of  blue  flowers,  which  necessitates  some 
yellow,  the  place  must  be  well  scraped  before  putting  the  color. 

Permanent  yellow,  (half  white  and  half  yellow  for  mixing), 
serves  for  placing  lights  in  drapery  and  yellow  flowers,  as  well  as 
high  lights  in  ornaments. 

Lemon  Yellow — Yellow  47  of  Sevres,  with  a  touch  of  silver 
yellow. 

Golden  Yellow — Half  silver  yellow ;  half  jonquil  yellow. 

Saffron  Yellow — Two-thirds  ivory  yellow ;  one-third  flesh  No. 
1 ;  a  touch  of  capucine  red. 

Salmon — Two-thirds  ivory  yellow;  one-third  flesh  No.  2;  a 
touch  of  carmine  No.  3. 

Straw  Color — Yellow  for  mixing,  used  very  lightly. 

Yellow  Lake — Yellow  for  mixing. 

Dark  Chrome  Yellow — Silver  yellow;  a  touch  of  jonquil 
yellow. 

Light  Chrome  Yellow — Jonquil  yellow. 

Indian  Yellow — Half  jonquil  yellow ;  half  ochre. 

Naples  Yellow — Ivory  yellow. 

Orange  Yellow — Orange  yellow. 

Maize — Half  ivory  yellow ;  half  orange  yellow. 

GREENS.  (Second  group.)  For  foliage  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  dark  tints  placed  in  advance  of  light  ones  destroy  the  latter 
in  the  firing. 

All  the  greens,  whether  in  foliage  or  in  drapery,  can  be  shaded 
with  browns,  reds,  and  carmine  tints. 


110  CHINA  PAINTING. 

By  painting  over  for  the  second  fire,  foliage  can  be  made  pur- 
ple or  bluish. 

Dark  green,  being  very  powerful,  should  be  used  with  caution. 

The  blue-greens  are  used  for  the  distance,  but  then  exces- 
sively light ;  they  are  tinted  with  capucine  red  for  the  horizon. 

Emerald-stone  Green — Emerald-stone  green. 

"Water  Green — Half  apple  green ;  half  deep  blue-green. 

Veronese  Green — One-third  apple  green;  one-third  chrome 
green ;  one-third  emerald-stone  green. 

Malachite — Apple  green ;  a  touch  of  emerald-stone  green. 

Blue-green — Deep  blue-green. 

Dark  Green — Two- thirds  chrome  green  3  B;  one-third  dark 
green. 

Bottle  Green  or  Sap  Green — Sap  green. 

Emerald  Green — Two-thirds  blue-green ;  one-third  emerald- 
stone  green. 

BROWNS.  (Third  group.)  The  artistic  browns  for  china 
which  steady  painters  prefer,  are  vigorous  browns,  fresh  when 
mixed,  and  resisting  well  the  action  of  the  fire,  but  which  have 
not  the  brilliancy  of  the  less  coloring  browns. 

The  warm  browns  in  oils  exist  for  china.  The  deep  red  brown 
and  mixtures  of  violet  of  iron  and  of  laky  red  correspond  to  the 
red  browns. 

Golden  Brown — Golden  brown. 

Vandyke  Brown — It  is  impossible  to  obtain  it  exactly.  The 
nearest  approach  would  be  by  mixing  brown  108  with  violet  of 
iron. 

Raw  Sienna — Sepia. 

Orange  Mars — Uranium  yellow  and  a  touch  of  purple. 

BLACKS.  (Third  group.)  The  blacks  in  oils  are  represented 
in  the  palette  for  pottery  by  raven,  ivory  and  iridium  black, 
which  answers  all  purposes. 

If  these  blacks  fail,  others  can  be  composed  by  mixtures  of 
simple  colors,  as  dark  reds  and  dark  blues.  It  would  be  better 
to  operate  in  two  firings  to  avoid  crazing. 


CHINA  PAINTING.  Ill 

The  use  of  iron  reds  is  not  admitted  on  soft  paste ;  the  blacks 
are  to  be  made  with  indium  black,  which  is  ready  made,  or  with 
purple  and  dark  green.  It  is  rare  that  black  is  needed  for  sub- 
jects painted  on  soft  paste.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  decoration 
for  surrounding  ornaments  with  a  line,  but  seldom  for  back- 
grounds, excepting  on  decorative  vases  of  a  certain  style. 

GREYS.  (Third  group.)  A  grey  of  some  kind  is  always  ob- 
tained by  mixing  complementary  colors ;  reds  with  greens,  or 
yellows  with  violets,  violet  being  a  combination  of  carmine  and 
blue. 

The  greys  obtained  by  mixing  greens,  ready  made  or  composed, 
with  carmine  or  purple,  as  required,  are  very  frequently  used  by 
flower  painters. 

Experience  on  this  subject  can  only  be  acquired  by  continual 
trials. 

Dove  Color — Dove  color. 

Ash  Grey — Light  grey  used  lightly,  and  a  touch  of  sky  blue. 

Pearl  Grey — Pearl  grey  No.  6. 

Eusset  Grey— Warm  grey. 

Brown  Grey — Grey  and  sepia. 


MONOCHROME  PAINTING  ON  PORCELAIN  OR 
EARTHENWARE. 


INSTRUCTION. 


E  now  come  to  painting.    Begin  on  porce- 
lain by  a  plate,  and  on  earthenware  by  a 
tile.    If  the  pupil  has  had  no  practice  either  in 
water  colors  or  in  oils — if,  in  a  word,  has  no  idea 
as  yet  of  setting  a  palette,  undertake  first  a  mono- 
chrome, that  is  to  say,  a  painting  done  with  one 
color  only,  heightened  by  one  or  two  other  tones. 


112  CHINA     1'AlVnXG. 

Monochromes  are  made  in  the  following  tints:  Grisailles, 
green,  blue-green,  blue,  violet  of  iron,  carmine,  purple  capucine 
red,  sepia,  red  brown,  bitumen. 

Deep  red  brown  and  violet  of  iron  are  the  two  colors  easiest  to 
be  used. 

Grisaille  Monochrome :  Light  grey  No.  1,  touched  up  with 
brown  grey. 

Greys  Nos.  1  and  2 ;  mix  a  little  carmine  No.  1  to  warm  up 
the  tints. 

On  porcelain  the  bodies  of  cupids  are  often  done  in  grisaille, 
with  a  little  carmine  at  the  extremities. 

Green — Emerald-stone  green  and  deep  green. 

Blue-green — Blue-green,  touched  up  with  the  same  color. 

Blue — Deep  ultramarine ;  dark  blue ;  permanent  white.  Or 
common  blue,  shaded  with  itself;  any  other  blue  would 
spoil  it. 

Violet  of  Iron — Violet  of  iron,  and  the  same  with  a  grey  tint. 

Carmine — Light  carmine  A ;  deep  carmine  No.  3. 

Purple — Deep  purple,  strengthened  by  the  same  tint  placed  at 
the  second  firing. 

Capucine  Red — Capucine  red :  orange  red ;  sepia.  Or  orange 
yellow  and  capucine  red  in  juxtaposition;  the  capuciue  red 
touched  up  with  red  brown. 

Sepia — Sepia  touched  up  with  the  same  shade. 

Eed  Brown — Orange  yellow  for  light  and  distant  tints ;  the 
foreground  deep  red  brown.  Or  deep  red  brown  heightened  with 
bitumen.  Or  else  deep  red  brown  and  sepia. 

Bitumen — Yellow  brown ;  brown  No.  3  bitumen ;  brown  No. 
4  or  17. 

The  design  having  been  traced  on  to  the  porcelain  or  china, 
you  take  the  tube  of  color  and  uncork  it  with  care.  Squeezing 
out  the  color  from  the  extreme  bottom  of  the  tube,  you  set  about 
the  tenth  part  of  its  contents  on  your  glass  palette,  which  should 
be  extremely  clean.  Grind  it  with  the  palette  knife,  (of  steel  or 
of  ivory,  according  to  the  color),  for  about  a  minute. 


CHINA  PAINTING.  113 

Sketching  In.  Is  done  with  the  finest  pointed  of  your 
"brushes,  dipped  lightly  into  the  little  bottle  of  spirits  of  lavender, 
then  filled  with  a  little  of  the  color  taken  from  the  edge  of  the 
lump,  turning  the  brush  meanwhile  between  your  fingers  to  get  a 
fine  point.  It  is  better  still  to  work  with  the  color  diluted  with 
water,  and  with  the  addition  of  a  little  dextrine,  which  gives  it 
the  advantage  of  resisting  the  oils.  Indicate  lightly  the  nose,  the 
mouth,  the  lachrymals  a  little,  as  well  as  between  the  fingers.  It 
will  be  useless  to  efface  this  sketch. 

You  will  then  begin  to  paint  the  head,  taking  a  larger  brush 
to  spread  the  color  broadly  and  quickly.  Still  very  little  medium. 
Put  a  rather  light  local  tint ;  while  the  color  is  still  wet  deepen 
the  tone  beneath  the  arch  of  the  eyebrows,  the  cheeks,  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  chin,  and  the  "parts  to  be  shaded,  taking  care 
meanwhile  to  leave  out  the  bright  lights,  or  those  reflected,  which 
should  remain  of  the  first  tint,  in  order  that  the  shadows  may 
give  an  appearance  of  roundness.  Take  next  a  small  dabber, 
with  a  flat  top,  and  holding  it  perpendicularly,  dabble  lightly 
before  the  color  has  time  to  dry.  Soften  and  mix  well  the  two 
tints,  keeping  them  distinct  the  while. 

Do  the  hair  after  the  flesh  tints  have  been  laid  on,  toning  the 
locks  more  or  less.  Here,  however,  no  more  dabber;  on  the 
contrary,  the  strokes  of  the  brush  must  appear  and  mark  the 
hair. 

Pass  on  to  the  drapery,  and  wash  in  broadly  the  principal 
shadows  with  a  still  larger  brush.  It  will  be  effective  to  preserve 
the  white  of  the  porcelain  or  china  for  the  lights  of  the  draperies. 
In  the  first  painting,  spirits  of  lavender  are  used,  so  that  the 
color  may  dry  less  quickly.  You  must  not  be  afraid  to  paint  the 
drapery  with  large  strokes  of  the  brush,  the  effect  is  all  the  better 
for  it.  Above  all,  let  there  be  no  harsh  or  dry  marks ;  in  paint- 
ing there  are  no  marks,  but  shadows  and  lights. 

Before  retouching,  the  painting  must  be  allowed  to  dry,  and 
the  medium  to  evaporate,  and  you  must  not  work  again  on  it 
unless,  lightly  placing  the  tip  of  your  finger  on  the  painting,  you 


114  CHINA  PAINTING. 

feel  scarcely  any  dampness  left ;  some,  however,  must  remain, 
for  the  color  would  easily  be  removed  by  retouching,  if  it  were 
in  a  pulverized  state.  The  dessication  can  be  hastened  by  heat- 
ing, either  at  a  lamp  of  spirits  of  wine,  or  in  an  oven ;  but  you 
must  wait  until  the  work  is  quite  cold  again  before  resuming. 

The  first  painting  must  be  taken  great  care  of,  and  kept  very 
clean.  While  it  is  drying,  it  should  be  placed  out  of  the  reach 
of  dust  and  damp ;  if  it  be  a  plaque,  place  it  in  a  flat  box  with 
a  proper  lid  to  it,  shutting  hermetically. 

M.  Lacroix's  colors  being  perfectly  well  prepared,  we  will  not 
dwell  upon  the  disadvantages  offered  by  the  former  badly  ground 
colors.  The  inexperienced  beginner  used  to  put  too  much  'fat,' 
or  too  much  spirits  of  lavender.  In  the  former  case  the  painting 
crazed  in  the  firing ;  it  was  lost.  With  too  much  spirits  of  lav- 
ender the  colors  ran ;  fled  in  the  firing.  Therefore  there  must 
be  no  excess,  but  the  three  mediums  must  be  used  with  manage- 
ment  and  discretion. 

When  you  retouch  your  painting,  before  the  first  firing,  you 
must  model  by  retouching  with  flat  tints,  and  you  must  do  it 
very  soberly,  very  lightly,  not  to  remove  what  is  underneath ;  work 
almost  dry,  that  is,  without  much  soaking  the  brush  in  the  spirits 
of  turpentine.  If  the  color  does  not  spread  easily,  the  brush  is 
wetted  with  the  least  possible  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine,  a  drop 
of  which  has  been  poured  on  the  palette.  Spirits  of  lavender  are 
of  no  use  for  this  second  performance. 

To  finish  "the  monochrome  completely,  it  is  necessary  to  stipple 
the  shadows,  using  very  little  rectified  spirits  of  turpentine.  If 
the  beginner  will  master  thoroughly  the  shadows  of  the  original, 
she  will  not  find  it  more  difficult  to  paint  in  monochrome  than 
to  reproduce  a  drawing  either  in  black  chalk  or  in  stump ;  the 
brush  will  take  the  place  of  the  stump  or  chalk :  the  only  diffi- 
culty that  can  arise  being  in  the  use  of  the  mediums,  and  in  the 
lack  of  time  for  allowing  the  painting  to  dry. 

I  repeat  it  again,  for  it  is  of  great  importance,  that  with  the 


CHINA  PAINTING.  115 

colors  of  M.  Lacroix  one  can  work  almost  dry,  once  the  palette 
has  been  set. 

When  the  work  is  finished,  it  is  submitted  to  the  firing,  either 
at  home,  (by  the  Gabelle  process),  or  at  a  decorators.  According 
to  the  result  obtained,  the  parts  which  lack  vigor  are  retouched. 

In  general  few  raised  lights  or  reliefs  are  employed.  Yet  in 
accessories,  they  heighten  advantageously  the  brilliancy  of  the 
painting.  The  paint  for  raised  lights  is  taken  from  the  palette 
in  a  particular  way ;  the  brush  must  lift  up  a  lump  of  color  at 
the  point,  that  it  may  be  laid  on  the  easier.  Raised  lights  are 
placed  on  small  flowers,  on  jewelry,  pearl  necklaces,  etc.  A  light 
in  the  eye  is  often  marked  with  permanent  white,  but  it  should 
be  used  i»i  great  moderation,  and  placed  at  the  second  firing. 

Photographs  from  casts,  medals,  bas-reliefs,  afford  excellent 
models  for  copying  in  monochrome  painting.  Copies  of  photo- 
graphs on  oval  plaques  are  done  with  red  brown,  heightened  with 
bitumen.  Raphael's  female  figures  011  plaques  for  sconces,  are 
copied  in  light  grey,  retouched  with  brown  grey,  on  a  ground  of 
very  light  carmine  No.  1. 


PAINTING  THE  HEAD  IN  COLORS  ON  PORCELAIN. 


(ET  on  the  palette,  at  intervals  of  about  an  inch,  some  ivory 
yellow,  yellow  brown,  flesh  No.  1,  flesh  No.  2,  light  grey, 
brown  108,  blue-green,  and  the  other  colors. 

The  drawing  having  been  traced  with  chalk,  you  proceed 
'to  sketch  it  in,which  should  always  be  done  in  the  same  color 
as  the  object.    For  the  flesh  take  some  flesh  No.  1  at  the 
tip  of  your  brush,  and  indicate  very  lightly  the  outline  of 
the  eyes,  the  nostrils,  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  and  the  ears ; 
but  above  all,  take  care  not  to  make  a  line  all  round  the  face, 
as  the  effect  produced  in  the  firing  would  be  exceedingly  bad.  Paint 


116  CHINA  PAINTING. 

likewise  the  face,  the  neck,  and  inside  the  fingers,  but  especially 
not  on  the  side  of  the  light,  which  must  detach  itself  by  the  local 
tint  only. 

With  the  ivory  knife  mix  one-third  flesh  No.  1  with  two-thirds 
ivory  yellow ;  this  forms  the  flesh  color  for  the  local  tint.  Pre- 
pare also  a  little  yellow  brown  for  the  reflected  lights.  These 
two  tints  are  to  be  applied  almost  simultaneously,  one  next  to 
the  other.  Commence  always  from  the  top  of  the  head,  and 
only  when  the  sketched  outline  is  dry,  otherwise  the  local  tint 
will  remove  it.  This  tint  must  be  laid  on  very  thin ;  apply  it 
quickly  with  precision  and  without  deviation  of  the  brush,  that 
is,  without  discontinuation  of  tint ;  look  at  the  china  sideways, 
and  if  the  color  is  deficient  in  any  place  remedy  that  at  once. 
Finally,  the  tints  are  made  even  by  dabbing,  and  the  flesh  color 
is  gently  blended  with  the  yellow  brown  by  means  of  a  very  small 
fitch  brush. 

For  faces  high  in  color,  yellow  browns  should  be  used  with  the 
reds,  and  some  violet  of  iron. 

While  the  first  tint  is  still  wet,  and  before  dabbling,  the  flesh 
color  should  be  strengthened  with  some  flesh  No.  1  beneath  the 
arch  of  the  eyebrows,  the  cheeks,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  chin. 

Cast  shadows  are  commenced  with  yellow  brown,  and  retouched 
with  brown  108.  Strong  shadows  are  made  of  violet  of  iron,  and 
the  edges  of  blue-green  and  light  grey. 

Paint  the  lips  with  flesh  No.  1,  retouch  with  No.  2,  but  above 
all,  let  there  be  no  outline  either  to  the  upper  or  to  the  lower  lip, 
nothing  but  a  soft,  flat,  pale  tint,  strengthened  a  bit  for  the 
shadow. 

Blue  eyes  are  made  with  sky-blue  and  a  minimum  of  blue- 
green,  retouched  with  blue-grey.  Brown  eyes,  with  yellow  brown 
retouched  with  sepia  or  bitumen.  The  pupil,  raven  black.  The 
sparkle  is  left  white,  or  is  laid  on  with  a  dab  of  permanent  white. 

Fair  hair  is  begun  with  ivory  yellow.  The  shadows  are  made 
with  yellow  brown,  and  brown  108  graduated,  and  they  termi- 
nate with  grey  and  bitumen. 


CHINA  PAINTING.  117 

Colored  draperies  are  begun  like  the  draperies  in  monochromes 
a  flat  general  tint  touched  up  again  at  once  with  the  same  tint 
to  give  strength  to  the  shadows.  There  is  nothing  prettier  than 
pink  drapery  shaded  with  blue,  and  yellow  shaded  with  pink  or 
capucine  red.  White  drapery  is  begun  with  an  extremely  light 
grey,  mixed  with  green.  Whites  are  reserved,  that  is,  the  greatest 
possible  part  of  the  china  is  left  bare  without  paint  to  form  the 
lights. 

The  beginner  will  do  well  if  she  paints  a  subject  with  several 
figures  in  it,  to  ascertain  which  colors  throw  back,  and  which 
bring  forward.  In  the  foreground,  light  colors;  white,  pink, 
light  blue,  lilac.  In  the  middle  ground,  blue,  green,  purple  and 
red  are  used.  For  the  background  there  are  dark  blue,  brown 
and  dark  green. 

The  ground  is  made  with  ivory  yellow  (for  the  lights),  bitu- 
men, grey,  and  a  little  violet  of  iron.  Trunks  of  trees  are  begun 
with  yellow-grey,  greenish-grey,  and  bitumen. 

The  palette,  set  complete  for  figure  subjects,  includes  the  fol- 
lowing colors:  Chinese  white,  sky-blue,  light  sky-blue,  dark 
blue,  deep  ultramarine  Victoria  blue,  blue  No.  29,  (special  for 
porcelain  scales  on  earthenware),  brown  No.  3,  bitumen,  brown 
No.  4  or  17,  yellow-brown,  deep  red-brown,  sepia,  light  carmine  A, 
carmine  No.  2,  deep  carmine  No.  3,  light  grey  No.  l,grey  No.  2, 
neutral  grey,  russet  or  warm  grey,  silver  yellow,  permanent  yel- 
low, ivory  yellow,  (47  of  Sevres),  yellow  for  mixing,  (41  of  Sevres), 
crimson  lake,  raven  black,  iridium  black,  yellow  ochre,  purple 
No.  2,  crimson  purple,  deep  purple,  capucine  red,  flesh  No.  1, 
flesh  No.  2,  deep  flesh,  orange  red,  grass  green  No.  5,  brown- 
green  No.  6,  dark  green  No.  7,  deep  blue-green,  deep  chrome 
green,  apple  green,  sap  green,  violet  of  iron,  light  violet  of  gold. 


118  CHINA   PAINTING. 

STYLE  OF  BOUCHER,  FLOWEBS,  FRUITS,  BIRDS,  AND 
LANDSCAPE  ON  PORCELAIN. 


STYLE   OF  BOUCHER. 

fy  paint  the  style  of  Boucher  (Cupids)  you  begin  by  trans- 
ferring your  design  on  the  china. 

Then  you  sketch  with  flesh  No.  1  the  lines  of  the  face, 
and  the  fingers  and  .toes.  When  this  sketch  is  dry,  the  reflected 
lights  are  marked  with  yellow-brown,  mixed  with  ivory  yellow. 

The  local  tint  of  flesh  color  is  laid  on  immediately  after,  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding  lesson ;  the  dabbling  evens  the  two 
colors  placed  side  by  side,  and  blends  them  one  into  the  other. 
Let  it  dry,  then  heighten  by  half  a  tone  the  extremities  of  the 
hands,  feet,  knees,  etc.  Sketch  in  the  hair  and  accessories,  the 
clouds  and  background,  while  the  local  tint  is  drying. 

Retouching.  "When  the  first  painting  has  lost  nearly  all  its 
moisture,  return  to  it  again ;  work  the  shadows  by  stippling  some 
brown  No.  17,  mixed  with  sepia,  yellow  ochre,  light  grey,  and  a 
touch  of  blue-green  for  the  transparent  parts.  Where  the  flesh 
is  brown,  the  reflected  lights  are  made  with  yellow  ochre  through- 
out, and  the  scale  of  browns  is  more  used.  A  touch  of  violet  of 
iron  warms  up  the  shadows,  and  approaches  nearer  to  Vandyke 
brown  in  oils. 

Flowers.  To  paint  flowers  well  it  is 
necessary  that  the  drawing  should  be  ex- 
ceedingly correct  and  sober  in  its  lines, 
for  the  tints  having  to  be  very  light  and 
very  pure,  too  many  pencil  marks  would 
injure  the  painting.  The  little  details  of 
the  petals  are  done  with  the  brush,  with- 
out previous  tracing.  The  pencil  must 
only  mark  the  leaf's  contour  aud  central 
vein ;  the  direction  of  the  brush  strokes 
is  enough  to  indicate  the  smaller  veins. 


CHINA  PAINTING.  119 

A  general  rule  for  the  manipulation  of  the  brush  in  flower 
painting  may  be  laid  down  thus :  The  handling  is  always  done 
the  way  of  the  petals,  converging  towards  the  center. 

Leaves.  Each  plant  possesses  a  particular  kind  of  leaf,  and 
even  in  the  rose  the  leaves  of  different  varieties  are  not  alike. 
Thus,  for  the  leaves  of  the  Bengal  rose,  a  semi  bright  tint,  a  shiny 
appearance  without  many  veins,  the  young  shoots  tinged  with 
carmine,  or  else  purple  mixed  with  silver  yellow.  The  king's 
rose :  the  leaves  of  this  rose  are  of  a  darker  green  than  the  pre- 
ceding ;  they  are  done  with  grass  green  No.  5,  the  edges  of  the 
older  leaves  become  somewhat  russet,  the  young  shoots  light 
green.  Red  rose :  the  leaves  deep  green,  heightened  with  brown, 
the  veins  dark  green  No.  7,  the  serrations  carmine  red,  the  fad- 
ing leaves  have  a  reddish  brown  hue.  Yellow  roses :  shiny  leaves 
inclining  to  blue-green,  retouched  with  grey,  inked  with  grass 
green ;  the  deeper  tints  made  with  dark  green  No.  7.  Do  not 
use  this  last  color  too  freely. 

Leaves  have  a  direction,  to  paint  them  properly  you  must  begin 
them  from  the  top,  that  is,  from  the  stalk  end.  Half  the  leaf  is 
painted  at  a  time,  from  the  principal  vein  to  the  edge,  making 
the  brush  twist  in  such  a  manner  that  the  brushmarks  and 
ridges  done  in  the  handling  may  represent  the  secondary  veins. 
The  leaves  of  bulbs  are  painted  from  the  top  downwards ;  so  are 
the  leaves  of  heartsease.  The  leaves  of  nasturtium  are  made 
almost  of  a  flat  tint,  converging  to  the  center,  which  is  a  light 
spot ;  their  color  is  a  very  light  blue-green,  shaded  with  grey. 

You  must  not  be  afraid  to  mix  purple  or  carmine  with  green, 
to  shade  foliage. 

Fruit.  This  style  is  done  indiscriminately  on 
porcelain,  earthenware,  enamel,  and  faience.  It 
is  very  easy ;  the  essential  point  is  to  match  well 
the  different  shades  of  color,  and  to  lay  them  one 
over  the  other  while  they  are  still  wet.  The  soft- 
ener flattens  them  and  helps  the  tints  to  mingle. 
Leaves  are  not  dabbled,  nor  are  the  stalks. 


120 


CHINA  PAINTING. 


To  describe  in  detail  the  manner  of  painting  divers  fruit  would 
take  too  long,  and  would,  in  truth,  have  very  little  interest.  We 
shall  limit  ourselves  to  one  example. 

PAINTING  OF  A  PEACH.  Flat  yellow  tints,  graduated  into 
green,  and  mixed  with  grey  in  the  shadow.  Dabble  carefully. 
Be  careful  to  add  more  oil  to  the  red  part,  which  is  softened  af- 
terwards very  easily  with  a  dabber,  and  red  blending  freely  with 
its  neighboring  color  from  the  effect  of  the  oil. 


Birds.  On  fa- 
ience birds  look 
very  well.  They 
are  also  done  on 
porcelain  to  imi- 
tate Saxony  ware. 

There  is  noth- 


ing  particular  to 
be  said  about  bird 
painting.  With 
regard  to  fancy 
birds,  the  merit 
consists  in  the  ser- 
vile copy  of  an- 


cient  and  exotic  types.  Good  examples  of  natural  birds  are  not 
scarce.  General  information  sufficient  for  the  use  of  the  colors 
will  be  found  in  our  lessons. 

Landscape.  Landscape  is  not  traced;  it  is  drawn  very 
lightly,  so  that  the  pencil  may  form  no  obstacle  to  the  painting. 

This  is  how  the  painting  is  proceeded  with :  On  a  square 
ground-glass  slab  of  moderate  size  set  your  "palette"  with  green 
tints,  in  the  following  order :  yellow  for  mixing,  yellow  ochre, 
apple  green,  grass  green,  chrome  green,  blue-green,  brown-green, 
dark  green,  sepia,  bitumen,  violet  of  iron,  etc.  Take  care  to 
leave  a  space  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  between  each 
color,  in  order  to  be  able  to  mix  them,  for  they  ought  not  to  be 
used  pure ;  the  effect  would  be  bad  and  inharmonious. 

Commence  by  the  sky,  using  sky-blue  and  excessively  light 
ultramarine ;  the  lighter  parts  of  ivory  yellow,  also  very  thin,  and 
the  distance  blue -green,  with  the  slightest  touch  of  carmine. 
Skies  are  to  be  done  with  a  very  large  brush,  and  the  mixing  of 
blue  and  yellow,  which  would  produce  impossible  green  clouds,  is 
to  be  avoided.  Skies  are  worked  from  left  to  right  j  they  are 


CHINA  PAINTING.  121 

washed  in  very  rapidly,  covering  also  the  place  for  the  trees.  A 
dabber  may  be  used  after. 

The  sky  being  dry,  the  trees  are  massed.  Inasmuch  as  light 
tints  would  disappear  in  the  firing  if  they  were  put  beneath  dark 
colors,  fresh  tints  of  apple  green  are  commenced  first,  which  are 
retouched  or  darkened  at  once  before  dabbling.  When  these 
tints  have  been  laid  and  are  dry,  the  foliage  is  done  by  manipu- 
lating the  brush  from  left  to  right  with  little  strokes  close  together, 
to  imitate  the  leaves.  Autumn  tints  are  preferable  to  greens 
that  are  too  bright.  You  obtain  them  by  sepia  and  the  ochres. 
Trunks  of  trees,  light  grey  and  sepia.  Branches,  bitumen.  For 
strengthening  touches  use  violet  of  iron. 

Houses,  ivory  yellow  mixed  with  grey ;  shadows,  violet  of  iron. 
Ground,  the  lights  of  ivory  yellow,  and  sometimes  yellow  ochre ; 
shadows,  bitumen ;  strong  tints,  brown  mixed  with  black.  Water 
is  done  with  very  light  blue-green,  retouched  with  grey,  and  occa- 
sionally revived  Avith  fresher  green  to  reflect  grass  or  trees. 

Strengthening  touches  are  given  at  the  second  firing,  and  a 
glaze  is  passed  over  the  tints  altered  in  the  first  firing. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  PACKING  DECORATED  CHINA, 

When  it  has  to  be  shipped  away  for  firing. 

Have  the  work  perfectly  dry ;  if  necessary,  drying  in  oven, 
which  may  alter  the  color,  but  firing  will  restore  that.  Wrap 
each  piece  separately  in  fine  paper,  and  pack  in  a  box  large 
enough  to  admit  sufficient  excelsior  straw  or  paper  to  keep  all 
steady,  particularly  the  corners.  Allow  good  layers  at  the  bottom 
and  top  of  the  boxes.  By  sending  directions  in  the  box  with  the 
china,  its  prompt  return  is  assured.  In  giving  instructions  with 
the  china,  be  explicit  as  to  pieces  requiring  gilding,  and  amount 
desired.  Prices  quoted  on  list  refer  to  simple  lines  only.  Gilding 
costs  extra. 


CHIKA  PAINTING. 


FIKING  GENERALLY  DONE  TWICE  A  WEEK. 


AVERAGE  PRICES  FOR  FIRING  DECORATIVE  WARE. 


Gilding  inclu'd,  25, 30  &  35f 

"  "  $1.50 

«  "  1.00 

"  "  20  to  25^ 

«  "  $1.50  to  $2.00 

«  "  20  to  50^. 

"  «  50  to  75^. 

"  «  5(V  to  $1.25 

«  «  20  to  75. 


1  Cup  and  Saucer,  15,  20 
6    "  "    (1?  pieces),  75. 

1  doz.  Individ'l  Butters,  50  to  60f 
Plates,  single,  10  to  15^ 

1  doz.  Plates,  $1.00  to  $1.25 

Pitchers,    10, 15,  20,  25  and  50^. 
Fruit  Dishes,  25  to  50f 

Covered  Dishes,    25,  50  and  75^. 
Placques.      10, 15,  20,  25  to  50f 

Tiles,  6x6 10£ 

Tiles,  8x8 Ifijd 

Plates  Banded  in  any  tint  desired  (Gilding  inclu'd),  per  doz.  $3.00 

Other  pieces  according  to  size  and- amount  of  Gilding. 

Ladies  who  wish  their  China  gilded  must  clean  the  edges  of 
the  same. 


TERRA-COTTA  PAINTING. 


* 


ENAMEL  PAINTING  ON  TERRA-COTTA. 


riKST  outline  with  a  lead-  pencil  the  subject 
to  be  painted ;  if  tracing  is  preferred,  use 
tracing  paper,  and  transfer  the  design/ 
upon  the  article,  by  means  of  a  colored! 
transfer  paper.  The  terra-cotta  is  now  im-1 
mersed  in  water ;  when  thoroughly  saturated, 
take  it  out,  and  with  a  soft  sponge  absorb  all 
'the  superfluous  moisture.  If,  during  the  process  of  painting, 
•some  of  the  parts  become  too  dry,  moisten  them  with  a  flat 
'brush  dipped  into  water. 

Have  on  hand  a  sufficient  quantity  of  white  enamel  powder, 
;and  with  a  glass  muller  grind  this  upon  a  ground  glass  slab  until 
perfectly  smooth,  with  water,  adding  a  little  gum  water  (dissolved 
;gum  arabic),  until  it  assumes  the  consistency  of  cream.  Apply 
this  to  the  surface  to  be  painted,  going  over  it  a  second  time,  so 
:as  to  cover  the  tint  of  the  ware.  The  enamel  should  be  put  on 
heavy  enough  so  that  it  appears  raised  from  the  flat  surface, 
*being  careful  to  spread  it  on  very  evenly,  that  none  of  the  parts 
are  coated  lighter  than  others  of  the  design.  Enamel  will  stand 
firing  several  times,  and  such  parts  not  brought  out  sufficiently 
can  be  restored  by  retouching  the  same,  and  subjecting  the  ar- 
ticle to  a  second  firing. 


124  TERRA-COTlA  PAINTING. 

If  the  design  is  to  be  in  natural  colors,  these  are  painted  over 
the  enamel  after  having  been  fired,  proceeding  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  china  painting.  Some  colors  will  bear  mixing  with  the 
enamel  before  firing ;  in  such  case  the  dry  enamel  colors  (China) 
are  used,  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  white  enamel.  Steel  grey, 
neutral  grey,  blues  and  yellows  are  among  the  colors  that  bear 
mixing.  The  first  three  are  best  adapted  for  mottled  or  clouded 
backgrounds,  if  such  are  desired.  The  glaze  contained  in  the 
colors  and  enamel  when  vitrified  by  firing,  produce  the  effect  of 
Limoges  ware. 

For  ornamental  work  the  relief  enamel  colors  can  be  used  suc- 
cessfully in  the  way  of  bead  work,  as  well  as  in  the  entire  design, 
they  being  already  mixed  in  a  powder  state,  consisting  of  about 
twenty-four  different  tints. 

In  doing  larger  pieces,  where  a  quantity  of  color  is  used,  the 
former  instructions  are  to  be  preferred.  If  vases  are  decorated, 
intended  for  use,  the  inside  should  be  washed  with  a  mixture  of 
enamel  and  color  to  give  it  a  glaze,  and  thus  prevent  the  outer 
decoration  from  being  injured  by  the  penetration  of  liquids. 

Before  taking  the  article  to  be  fired,  place  it  where  it  will  be- 
come thoroughly  dry,  as  it  cannot  be  fired  in  a  moist  state.  The 
Barbotine  ware,  which  has  lately  come  into  the  market,  can  be 
effectively  decorated  in  the  above  manner. 


OIL  PAINTING  ON  TERRA-COTTA. 

Upon  terra-cotta  of  a  light  tint  the  design  is  drawn  with  a  lead 
pencil ;  upon  that  of  a  dark  tint,  use  the  colored  impression  paper. 

Place  the  article  between  piles  of  books,  or  fill  a  box  with  sand, 
and  lay  or  stand  it  into  this  in  the  position  required ;  see  that  the 
right  arm  rests  upon  an  even  plane  with  the  article  to  be  dec- 
orated. 

A  terra-cotta  medium  is  made  from  a  small  quantity  of  gum 


TERRA-COfTA  PAlHTlKG.  125 

arable  dissolved  in  water,  to  which  is  added  a  little  syrup ;  go  over 
the  entire  article  with  a  flat  brush  dipped  into  the  medium ;  when 
dry,  repeat  the  wash.  The  article  is  now  ready  for  the  oil 
colors.  Mix  these  with  flake  white,  and  use  McGuilp  instead  of 
turpentine ;  lay  the  colors  on  fairly  thick,  and  let  them  dry  for 
some  hours,  then  tint  and  finish  with  the  colors  necessary,  with- 
out the  flake  white,  but  still  using  McGuilp.  "When  finished  and 
quite  dry,  varnish  with  best  copal  or  mastic. 

The  artist  should  have  at  hand  two  or  three  fine  oil  brushes, 
a  flat  brush,  and  the  necessary  colors.  Those  being  indis- 
pensable are  the  following :  black,  burnt  light  ochre,  terra  di 
sienna,  Indian  red,  and  flake  white. 

The  artist  is  reminded  that  vases  of  antique  shape  look  best 
when  decorated  in  antique  designs. 


WATER-COLOR  PAINTING  ON  TERRA-COTTA. 

Outline  or  transfer  the  subjects  as  before  mentioned.  Moisten 
the  terra-cotta,  and  absorb  the  superfluous  moisture  with  blotting 
paper.  Mix  the  colors  with  Chinese  white,  and  use  with  them  the 
terra-cotta  medium  already  mentioned.  For  the  blues,  yellows, 
carmines,  and  the  bright  colors,  coat  the  parts  thickly  with 
Chinese  white,  using  plenty  of  medium ;  when  quite  dry,  add  the 
pure,  bright  colors.  Wash  them  carefully  over  the  white,  mixed 
with  medium,  in  order  not  to  rub  the  latter  up,  which  would  les- 
sen the  effect.  When  finished  and  thoroughly  dry,  varnish  with 
copal  or  mastic. 


BURNING  IN, 


^MINERAL  DECALCOMANIE.& 


A  NEW  AND  BEAUTIFUL  ART  OF  INSTANTLY  TRANSFERRING 

PICTURES  TO  CHIXA   AND   OTHER  WARE   TO   IMITATE 

EXACTLY  THE  MOST  BEAUTIFUL  PAINTING. 


I 

ECALCOMANIE  lias  now  been  successfully  before  the 
public  for  a  number  of  years.  The  above  is  still  a 
later  invention,  and  never  before  brought  to  the  mar- 
ket. It  has  long  been  a  question  whether  the  durability 
of  a  transferred  article,  particularly  on  glass,  porcelain, 
china,  etc.,  could  not  be  improved  upon.  This  has  at  last 
been  accomplished,  and  the  choicest  designs  are  now  like- 
wise printed  with  mineral  or  china  colors,  thus  meeting  a  de- 
mand often  made.  Articles  ornamented  in  this  manner,  and 
after  going  through  the  regular  process  of  burning  in,  will  be 
found  as  durable  and  impossible  to  deface  as  those  painted  by 


MINERAL  DECALCOMANIE.  127 

hand  from  the  celebrated  potteries  of  Europe.    By  this,  the  art 
of  Decalcomanie  is  brought  to  perfection. 

DIRECTIONS. 

1.  Place  the  mineral  subject  which  you  wish  to  transfer  (about 
ten  to  fifteen  minutes  before  being  used),  between  some  blotting 
paper  slightly  moistened.    The  object  of  this  is  to  give  flexibility 
to  the  paper,  which  thus  moistened  will  give  itself  easy  to  the 
object,  either  concave  or  convex,  on  which  you  desire  to  transfer. 

2.  Cover  the  object  to  be  decorated  with  a  coat  of  Vitrifiable 
Varnish,  about  the  size  of  the  design,  with  a  flat  camel's-hair 
brush  ;  leave  it  to  dry  a  few  minutes,  that  is,  until  the  varnish 
is  nearly  dry,  and  be  careful  to  lay  on  the  varnish  as  thin  and 
even  as  possible,  nor  leave  any  spots  bare.     The  varnish  may  be 
applied  to  the  picture  instead  of  the  ware. 

3.  Press  the  picture  on  in  a  uniform  manner,  and  rub  at  first 
witli  a  clean  piece  of  linen,  then,  with  the  handle  of  a  tooth 
brush,  or  ivory  handle  of  an  infant's  brush,  or  any  smooth  ar- 
ticle suitable  in  shape,  rub  constantly  for  several  minutes,  until 
the  entire  paper  assumes  a  polished  appearance. 

4.  Place  the  transferred  object  in  a  pail  of  water,  until  the 
paper  detaches  itself,  or  can  be  removed  without  any  difficulty. 

5.  Pass  gently  a  soft  brush,  dipped  in  water,  over  the  trans- 
ferred picture,  in  order  to  remove  the  preparation  off  the  paper. 
Press  down  the  blisters  of  the  picture  with  a  soft  pad  made  of 
silk  or  linen,  instead  of  the  above  manner,  if  preferred. 

6.  Now  lay  aside  the  decorated  article  for  twenty-four  hours, 
to  get  thoroughly  dry,  and  be  careful  in  keeping  it  out  of  the 
dust. 

This  being  all  done  according  to  directions,  your  work  is  now 
ready  for  being  burnt  in  by  the  furnace.  The  burning  in  pro- 
cess for  which  the  work  is  now  waiting,  is  only  to  be  accomplished 
in  a  china  burning  establishment. 

Materials  Required.  1.  One  flat  camel's  hair  brush.  2.  Vial 
of  verifiable  varnish.  3.  Vial  of  clarified  spirits. 


123 


WIN  ER.VL   LlECA  LOOM  A  X I E. 


Designs  go  by  numbers,  as  follows: 

301.    Upright  Flower  Bouquets,  3x4,  30  on  sheet $2 .10 

330.    Scenes,  Landscapes,  2x2j£,  35  on  sheet 1.50 

351.    Roman  Heads,  2x2%,  36  on  sheet 3.60 

355.  Celebrated  Painters'  and  Female  Heads,  2>£x2%,  20  on  sh.  3.00 

557.    Ladies'  Heads,  small,  Ix J^,  144  on  sheet 2 .40 

401.    Children  scenes,  Watteau  style,  2x2%,  42  on  sheet 2 .40 

417.    Ladies'  .Heads,  oval,  2%x3}£,  20  on  sheet 2 .40 

502.    Flower  Bouquets,  assorted,  64  on  sheet 0 . .  2.40 

505.    Children's  Heads.  1x1^,  168  on  sheet 2.40 

507.  Roman  Heads,  3x2,  36  on  sheet 2.40 

508.  Females, 4x3,  16  on  sheet 2.40 

509.  Female  Heads,  2x2^,  42  on  sheet 2.40 

510.  Monkeys,  3x3>£,  20  on  sheet 1.80 

511.  Roman  Heads,  one  color,  48  on  sheet 75 

512.  Round  Fruit  Pieces,  5x5,  16  on  sheet 2.10 

513.  Classical  Statuary  Figures  in  groups,  6x9j^,  6  on  sheet..  1.80 
515.    Deers,  full  size,  15  on  sheet 1 .80 

Oval  Fruit  Pieces,  3x3^,«36  on  sheet..  2.10 
Bis.  Oblong  Fruit    Pieces,  3x3)£  and 


£,  30  on  sheet 2.10 

Bis.  Children's  Pieces,  3x3 >£,  18  on  sheet  2 .40 
Children  in  squares,  3x4%,  12  on  sheet,  2.40 

Chinese  in  groups,  6x4, 10  on  sheet 1 .20 

BirtJs  in  squares,  2x2^,  24  on  sheet 2.10 

Oval  Flowers  and  Fruit  Pieces,  5x2^, 

22  on  sheet 65 

Garland  of  Mosses,  Roses,  etc.,  assorted. 

28  on  sheet 2.10 

Etruscan  Figures,  Emblems,  etc.,  31  on 

sheet , .' 3.00 

Female  Busts,  4x5, 10  on  sheet 2 .40 

Oval  Landscapes,  5J^x4,  9  on  sheet 2.40 

Children's  Hoads,  2^x3%,  21  on  sheet,  2.40 
Fantastic  Warriors  and   Females,  as- 
sorted, 14  on  sheet 2 .40 

Female  Busts,  3x3^,  21  on  sheet 2.40 

Figures  in  Groups,  ass't'd,  8  on  sheet.. .  2.40 

The  above  designs  are  all  to  be  burnt  in  on  crys- 
tal, porcelain,  etc.,  and  cannot  be  used  any  other 
way. 


PRESERVATION  OF 


NATURAL  FLOWERS. 


WRITTEN  ESPECIALLY  FOE  THIS  WOBK  BY  THE  FIRST  PREMIUM  PRESERVER 
OF  FLOWERS. 


'  'Twas  a  lovely  thought  to  mark  the  hours, 

As  they  floated  in  light  away, 
By  the  opening  and  the  folding  flowers, 
That  laugh  in  the  summer's  day."— Hemans. 

[HERE  are  five  distinct  methods  for  preserving  natural 
iflowers,  and  no  one  method  can  be  given  proper  for 
varieties,  and  all  families  of  the  floral  kingdom. 
Annuals,  flowers  of  quick  growth,  of  a  succulent  na- 
ture, cannot  be  preserved  in  their  natural  state. 
Balsams  require  the  elaborate  chemical  method,  and 
all  flowers  resembling  the  balsam  require  the  same 
specific  treatment  To  preserve  flowers  as  they  should 
be  preserved,  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  all  five  methods  is 
desired.  These,  in  combination,  form  one  perfect  system,  which 
requires  lessons  and  experimental  practice. 


130  PRESERVATION  OP  NATURAL  FLOWERS. 

There  was  a  process  patented,  and  practiced  for  some  years, 
which  was  found,  after  a  year's  time,  that  the  flowers  grew  dark, 
spotted,  and  were  a  distressing  souvenir.  This  was  the 

Hot  Water  System.  All  flowers  of  a  fibrous,  woody  na- 
ture, are  susceptible  of  preservation.  The  fibrous  nature  of  the 
wood  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  flower. 

Roses,  camelias,  japonicas,  tube  roses,  and  azalias,  also  carna- 
tion pinks,  (white),  were  preserved  in  boiling  water,  as  below : 

Take  a  few  crystals  of  oxalic  acid,  pour  on  them  boiling  water, 
perhaps  a  pint  to  a  half  dozen  crystals,  thoroughly  dissolving  the 
crystals ;  after  separating  carefully  with  the  sharp  point  of  a  fine 
moulding  pin  the  flower  petals,  drop  them  into  the  boiling  water, 
each  flower  separately — replace  it  over  the  fire  and  let  it  boil  a 
few  seconds,  watching  and  removing  each  petal  as  soon  as  the 
waxy  substance  of  the  flower  is  gone,  and  the  transparent  fibre  of 
the  petals  remain.  Coat  the  back  of  the  petal  with  sheet  wax, 
pressing  it  down  until  incorporated  with  the  fibre,  and  put  back 
the  flower  precisely  as  it  was  taken  apart,  using  a  wax  bud  for 
the  foundation  of  the  flower,  and  using  cotton  covered  wire  for 
the  stems. 

At  the  Centennial  Exposition  held  at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  a 
white  transparent  camelia  attracted  my  attention.  Being  pos- 
sessed of  every  receipt  in  the  known  world,  and  some  of  my 
formulas  being  combinations  resulting  from  experiments  under 
the  instructions  of  the  celebrated  chemical  professors  at  Leipzig, 
I  requested  permission  to  examine  this  flower  closely,  and  to  do 
so,  was  obliged  to  get  special  permission.  This  camelia  was 
transparent,  clear,  pure,  without  flaw,  and  close  examination 
showed  it  to  be  a  composite  of  several  different  flowers,  all  of  the 
same  variety,  done  by  the  hot  water  system,  and  instead  of  wax 
on  the  back,  varnished  with  a  fine  transparent  white  spirit  var- 
nish. These  flowers  look  well  for  a  while,  but  I  do  not  commend 
its  general  use.  It  will  do  where  the  flowers  are  to  be  worn  in 
the  hair,  or  on  the  breast,  for  a  few  times  only,  but  after  a  year 
they  grow  discolored,  spotted,  and  are  unpleasant  souvenirs. 


PRESERVATION"  OF  NATURAL  FLOWERS,  131 

The  Sandwich  Island  Process.  In  the  Sandwich  Islands 
the  ferns  are  preserved  green  and  fresh  for  months  by  those  who 
sell  collections  to  visitors  of  the  Islands.  These  are  prepared 
carefully,  and  picked  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  (remember,  that  is  in- 
dispensable to  good  preservation),  the  fronds  selected  perfect  in 
shape,  brilliant  in  tint,  and  fully  seeded.  The  fern  fully  spored 
is  in  its  prime.  The  paper  used  for  pressing  should  be  an  ab- 
sorbent, not  letter  paper,  or  any  satin  surfaced  or  calendered 
papers.  The  collector  should  carry  the  book  to  the  ground,  and 
not  depend  on  bringing  them  home  in  a  botanist's  case,  or  heated 
by  hand  bringing.  You  must  pick  them  dry,  and  place  them 
directly  in  the  book,  bringing  them  home  only  in  that  manner. 
Arrived  home,  roll  a  small  bit  of  cotton  batting  around  the  cut 
end  of  the  stem,  and  seal  the  end  over  with  red  sealing  wax,  leav- 
ing as  small  a  wad  of  cotton  and  wax  as  possible.  Then  transfer 
the  ferns  into  another  fresh  book  of  papers,  changing  them  every 
morning  and  evening  until  dry.  The  warmer  the  books  are  kept 
the  greener  and  fresher  the  ferns  after  drying.  Then  ferns  can 
be  used  ten  years  after  pressing,  cutting  off  the  waxed  end  and 
setting  the  ferns  into  water,  they  will  in  twenty-four  hours,  fill 
out  again  and  look  like  freshly  picked  ferns. 

A  preserver  of  flowers  said  once  to  me  that  ferns  could  not  be 
kept  green  by  any  known  process.  This  Sandwich  Island  process 
is  splendid,  and'  a  complete  success. 

By  dissolving  benzoic  acid  in  alcohol  one  oz.  to  a  pint,  coloring 
with  aniline  green,  shaded  up  by  mixing  brown  or  black  and  yel- 
low, all  anilines,  and  dipping  old  ferns,  browned  by  time,  the 
ferns  can  be  used  for  decoration,  in  hanging  baskets,  or  on  the 
window  curtains,  but  they  do  not  bear  close  examination.  The 
coloring  matter  is  perfectly  perceptible  on  close  inspection. 

The  Sand  Drying  Method  in  preserving  small  flowers  is 
good,  and  no  process  is  complete  without  the  addition  of  this 
important  part  of  the  instruction.  It  is  within  reach  of  every 
lady,  and  the  flowers  so  dried  will  retain  their  colors  a  long 


132  PRESERVATION  OF  NATURAL  FLOWERS. 

time.  To  every  25  Ibs.  of  fine  glass  blower's  sand  add  1  oz.  of 
spermaceti  and  1  oz.  of  calcined  borax,  thoroughly  mixed  and 
incorporated  \vith  the  sand.  The  sand  must  be  kept  perfectly 
dry,  the  flowers  must  be  dry,  and  from  all  flowers  where  the 
honey  gathers  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup,  it  must  be  removed  be- 
fore the  sand  bath  is  attempted.  This  is  a  delicate  operation, 
and  effected  by  the  use  of  a  crotchet  hook,  with  a  little  cotton 
batting  twisted  around  the  point.  Introduce  it  delicately  in  the 
flower,  remove  the  honey,  dew-drop  or  water  drop,  and  your 
flower  will  preserve  dry,  in  shape. 

Sweet  alyssum,  daisies,  candytuft,  can  be  beautifully  preserved 
and  keep  their  freshness  for  a  long  time,  under  the  sand  drying 
process.  Some  flowers  need  a  varnish  before  the  sand  bath,  some 
need  to  be  varnished  after  removal  from  the  bath.  All  labiate 
corollas,  all  flowers  cup  shaped,  should  be  first  stuffed  delicately 
and  carefully  *with  cotton  batting  before  putting  them  into  the 
sand.  This  knowledge  is  obtained  only  by  a  regular  course  of 
instruction,  as  the  family  of  flowers,  or  the  floral  kingdom  is  so 
extended.  After  preparing  the  flowers,  (all  flowers  should  stand 
after  being  plucked  a  short  time,  their  stems  immersed  in  cold 
water,  so  as  to  give  full  life  and  strength  to  the  flower,  and  if  it 
is  to  be  varnished  it  should  be  done  while  standing  in  the 
water),  have  ready  your  sand  in  a  box  with^a draw  bottom.  This 
bottom  is  drawn  out  after  the  process  is  completed,  leaving  the 
dried  flowers  intact  in  the  box. 

Fill  your  box  partly,  with  sand  perfectly  dry,  without  mixture, 
clip  off  the  stems  to  within  an  inch  of  the  flower  cluster,  and  dip 
it  into  hot  sealing  wax,  sealing  up  the  end  of  the  stem  carefully 
and  thoroughly,  then  immerse  the  stem  in  the  sand  up  to  the 
flower  cluster,  taking  care  to  space  between  the  flowers — no  two 
touching.  After  filling  your  flowers  in  the  box,  commence 
by  pouring  in  softly  and  gradually  the  sand  prepared  for  them. 
Cover  them  perfectly,  and  set  the  box  in  a  dry  place,  where  no 
dampness  can  get  into  the  sand.  A  single  drop  of  water,  or  a  par- 
ticle of  sup,  will  ruin  the  whole  of  the  box  of  flowers. 


PRESERVATION  OF  NATURAL  FLOWERS  133 

Iii  some  white  flowers  a  little  chloride  of  lime  mixed  with  the 
sand  can  be  used  once,  but  as  soon  as  the  lime  slacks  it  must  be 
removed.  Flowers  require  from  two  weeks  to  thirty  days  in  an 
even  heat  of  80  degrees,  not  more.  As  soon  as  the  process  is 
complete,  pour  off  carefully  the  sand  from  the  flowers,  and  if 
found  to  be  brittle,  expose  them  a  few  hours  to  a  dry  atmosphere. 
The  ordinary  atmosphere  of  the  room  will  be  all  that  is  required. 

For  the  five  methods  combined,  regular  lessons  are  required, but 
it  is  not  necessary  for  any  excepting  those  who  desire  to  make  floral 
preservation  a  business.  The  sand  drying  can  be  followed  by  any 
lady  for  winter  bouquets,  and  the  usual  flowers  of  the  garden, 
beautifully  preserved  in  this  method,  for  winter  decorations, 
hanging  baskets,  etc.  Jardiniers  are  a  lovely  winter  ornament, 
with  green  ferns  floating,  one  could  not  tell  but  what  these  flowers 
had  just  been  plucked  from  the  garden. 

The  Last  Process  is :  Clip  from  the  bush,  without  injur- 
ing the  stem,  the  buds  just  as  they  are  opening,  allowing  two  or 
three  inches  of  stem  with  each  bud,  and  immediately  cover  the 
ends  with  hot  sealing  wax.  When  cold,  wrap  them  up  in  cotton 
batting,  separately,  and  lay  them  away  in  a  cool  place  in  a  box, 
where  nothing  can  rest  upon  or  injure  them. 

At  any  time  you  wish  to  make  use  of  them,  bring  them  forth 
from  the  place  of  concealment,  cut  off  the  end  containing  the 
wax,  and  place  the  stems  in  a  vase  of  cool  water,  containing  a 
little  salt.  Allow  them  to  remain  in  a  moderately  warm  room 
for  a  few  hours,  and  you  will  perceive  the  buds  commencing  to 
expand  and  open,  and  soon  after  you  can  have  the  opportunity  of 
beholding  a  full-blown  rose,  representing  all  those  beautiful 
colors  with  which  nature  has  so  wisely  endowed  it,  and  sending 
forth,  in  all  the  sweetness  and  purity  of  its  nature,  the  most 
loving  and  fascinating  odors,  which  is  so  much  desired  and 
sought  after  by  lovers  of  flowers. 

These  flowers  in  winter  command  exceedingly  high  prices,  so 
much  so  that  some  are  making  it  a  business  of  preparing  them, 
and  are  making  money  by  the  operation. 


PAPER-FLOWER  MAKING, 


THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOUQUETS,  MATERIALS  USED,  ETC. 
I 


UCH  of  the  success  in  maKing  paper  flowers  depends 
on  the  quality  of  the  material,  and  the  form  of 
the  pins,  moulders,  pincers,  etc. 

The  paper  should  be  carefully  selected,  refer- 
ence being  had  principally  to  its  color  and  texture. 
As  a  rule,  it  cannot  be  too  thin,  and  must  be  soft 
and  strong.  Avoid  highly  glazed  papers,  except- 
ing when  such  a  flower  as  the  peony  is  to  be  copied. 
In  passion-flower  and  fuchsia  there  is  a  thickness 
of  texture  only  to  be  imitated  by  placing  a  sheet 
of  thin  waxed  muslin  between  two  sheets  of  paper. 
For  many  flowers,  especially  roses,  a  shaded  paper 
is  used,  so  colored  as  to  allow  of  its  being  doubled, 
that  A  number  of  petals  may  be  cut  from  it,  leaving  the  dark 
shade  in  the  part  required.  Many  flowers  will  need  painting, 
and  for  this  purpose  powder  color  is  employed,  using  it  with  a 
tinting  brush,  a  separate  one  being  kept  for  each  tint.  Many 
flowers,  such  as  tulip,  geranium,  picotee,  etc.,  require  a  second  or 
third  shade  of  color ;  for  these,  moist  or  transparent  colors  are 
to  be  used,  violet,  lake,  carmine  and  sepia  being  most  useful,  but 
for  a  complete  list  of  colors  the  reader  is  referred  to  page  142.  The 


PAPEB-FLOWER  MAKING.  135 

moist  colors  must  be  applied  with  a  sable  brush.  They  should 
all  be  mixed  with  water,  in  some  cases  adding  a  little  gum, 
for  the  purpose  of  more  completely  fixing  the  color  on  the  paper. 

Avoid  using  the  powdered  color  too  wet ;  it  should  resemble  a 
thick  paste  on  the  palette.  Sometimes  use  the  color  dry,  rubbing 
it  on  with  the  finger,  but  this  only  on  rare  occasions. 

Several  kinds  of  wire  will  be  wanted,  seme  flowers  having  soft 
and  some  stiff  stems.  In  some — not  many — a  very  light  spring- 
ing stem  is  necessary,  as  for  poppy ;  fine  soft  wire  for  the  stems 
of  fuchsias,  etc.  I  am  led  to  insist  on  particular  attention  being 
paid  to  the  stems  being  imitated  carefully,  as  so  many  otherwise 
good  specimens  have  been  spoiled  by  having  stems  hard  looking 
and  unlike  the  natural  flower. 

"Wire  covered  with  cotton  is  generally  used,  also  fine  steel  wire 
for  the  tendrils  of  passion-flower,  or  for  the  light  and  graceful 
stem  of  the  common  field  poppy. 

Floss  silk  is  useful ;  this  must  be  fine,  strong,  and  soft.  It  is 
used  as  a  fastening  to  many  of  the  petals,  to  nearly  all  the  leaves, 
and  when  a  joint  of  many  stems  is  to  be  formed. 

Black  tying  wire,  for  greater  strength  and  larger  work,  is  some- 
times necessary. 

Gum  water  is  used  for  fastening  the  work  together ;  this  must 
not  be  too  thin. 

The  proper  tools  will  be  found  at  an  art  store,  both  as  regards 
size  and  form,  numbering  from  1  to  8,  but  practice  alone  will 
enable  the  learner  to  judge  which  is  best  suited,  some  finding  a 
large,  some  a  b^all  tool  the  more  effective. 

The  pincers  aio  required  to  arrange  the  petals  of  a  flower,  as 
for  a  rose,  clove,  etc. 

Scissors  adapted  to  cutting  the  paper,  having  a  nipper-like 
contrivance  at  the  bottom  of  the  blades  for  cutting  the  wire. 

As  nearly  all  the  leaves  will  require  some  painting,  to  give  them 
a  warmer  or  more  natural  tint  than  is  to  be  found  in  those  usually 
purchased,  mix  a  small  quantity  of  the  proper  color,  use  it  with  a 
tinting  brush,  and  having  carefully  painted  over  the  surface  of 


136  PAPER-FLOWER  MAKING. 

the  loaf,  leave  it  to  dry,  then  hold  it  to  the  fire ;  or  should  a  glossy 
appearance  be  required,  as  in  a  camellia  leaf,  the  polishing  brush 
must  be  used. 

To  obtain  the  pattern  of  a  natural  flower,  proceed  thus: 
Select  one  or  more  petals,  as  the  case  may  require.  Take  a  gera- 
nium, for  example ;  this  has  two  sizes,  so  that  one  of  the  large, 
or  painted  petals,  and  one  of  the  smaller,  will  be  required.  Place 
these  on  a  sheet  of  thin  cardboard,  trace  round  the  edge  with  a 
pencil,  then  cut  out  to  drawing,  allowing  a  little  additional  length 
for  fixing  them.  Mark  on  each  the  number  necessary  for  the 
flower. 

In  some  cases  petals  are  cut  in  a  circle  or  star,  as  in  clove, 
rhododendron,  or  passion-flower.  This  is  done  by  getting  one 
petal  traced  on  paper,  as  above  directed,  then  cutting  the  required 
number  for  it,  and  so  arranging  them  on  the  cardboard  as  to 
represent,  as  in  the  passion-flower,  a  star  of  five.  Take  for 
example  a 

CRIMSON  RHODODENDRON. 

This  most  effective  flower  should  be  made  thus :  Select  about 
twelve  petals,  gum  the  edge,  draw  over  edge,  let  them  dry,  then 
gum  the  small  bulb  at  base  of  pistil  and  stamens  (called  the 
"heart,")  pass  the  stem  of  this  through  the  opening  of  petals, 
draw  down  tightly,  and  let  remain  for  a  few  minutes  to  dry,  cover 
the  stem  with  pale  green  paper,  slightly  bend  the  pistil  and  sta- 
mens that  they  may  incline  towards  the  central  petal  of  the 
flower.  A  piece  of  strong  wire  about  nine  inches  long  is  required 
on  which  to  mount  the  flowers  and  leaves ;  arrange  three  flowers 
on  the  top  of  this  with  their  backs  to  each  other,  leaving  the 
flower  stalk  about  two  inches  in  length,  tie  this  with  silk,  roll  a 
little  stem  paper  round  and  then  place  on  three  scales,  cut  from 
palest  brown  stem  paper ;  other  three  flowers  should  be  placed 
between  those  already  fixed  a  little  lower  down.  This  order  of 
arranging  the  flowers  to  be  observed  until  the  truss  of  flowers  is 
complete.  Cover  the  stem  with  brown  stem  paper  and  arrange 


PAPEK-FLOWER  MAKING.  137 

the  leaves,  beginning  with  the  small  ones  in  the  same  manner  as 
directed  for  the  flowers,  only  that  each  leaf  should  be  a  little 
lower  down  than  the  last ;  they  will  require  coloring,  and  for  this 
use  burnt  sienna  and  Prussian  blue,  applied  with  a  tinting  brush, 
afterwards  using  the  polishing  brush ;  this  will  give  them  the 
gloss  observable  in  the  natural  leaf.  Many  of  the  rhododendrons 
are  made  of  plain  colored  petals,  but  their  beauty  is  much  en- 
hanced by  spotting  them ;  the  process  is  simple,  and  the  direc- 
tion for  one  will  do  for  all,  only  varying  the  color  used.  Select 
the  crimson  with  dark  spots.  Take  in  the  hand  a  stamped 
flower,  and  having  mixed  some  carmine,  take  a  tinting  brush  and 
apply  to  the  three  uppermost  petals,  taking  care  that  the  color 
becomes  lighter  towards  the  edge  and  deepening  towards  the 
center.  Now  mix  a  little  violet  (moist)  with  carmine,  and  mark 
the  spots  as  desired ;  this  must  be  done  with  a  small  sable  brush. 
White  rhododendrons  spotted  with  yellow  and  brown,  or  lilac  with 
green  spots,  make  very  striking  varieties. 


WHITE  CAMELLIA. 

For  this  flower  use  white  tissue  paper  of  medium  thickness ;  no 
other  paper  will  so  nicely  imitate  the  texture  of  this  well  known 
flower. 

Cut  from  a  pattern,  to  be  obtained  as  before  directed,  (which 
may  be  purchased  when  the  flower  is  out  of  season),  the  proper 
numbers  of  petals ;  place  each  set  or  size  separately  on  the  hand, 
deeply  curl  the  edge  with  the  same  pin  used  for  the  rose,  and  then 
press  down  the  center  with  the  steel  stem,  so  as  to  give  the  deeply 
indented  vein  seen  in  the  center  of  each.  The  larger  petal  will 
require  turning  on  the  fingers  previous  to  using  the  stem  of  the 
pin,  so  as  to  cause  the  edges  to  turn  backwards.  'Tis  well  here  to 
remark  that  while  you  use  the  head  of  the  pin  on  the  edge  or  other 
part  of  a  petal  placed  on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  always  place 
the  petal  on  the  fingers  when  the  stem  of  the  instrument  is  to 
be  used. 


138  PAPER-FLOWER  MAKING. 

The  stem  of  cotton  wire  No.  2.  On  this  roll  some  pale-yellow 
\v;ix  ;  make  it  about  the  size  of  a  small  plum  stone,  the  three 
smallest  petals  so  placed  that  the  edge  turns  inward  and  the 
points  meet,  leaving  the  base  of  each  petal  just  touching  the  wire 
stem  ;  three  of  the  next  size  must  now  be  placed  on  between  the 
preceding,  slightly  raised.  It  is  found  that  the  most  expedi- 
tious method  of  fixing  the  petals  of  this  flower  is  to  take  a  small 
piece  of  white  wax,  as  large  as  the  head  of  pin  No.  2,  used  as  a 
wafer,  only  without  being  wet.  Place  this  at  the  bottom  of  each 
petal,  it  will  then  only  require  carrying  to  its  place  and  firmly 
pressing  with  the  finger  or  point  of  the  ivory  pin  to  make  it  ad- 
here ;  this  is  both  quicker  and  more  easily  performed  than  with 
gum  water.  The  three  following  sizes  may  be  arranged  in  the 
same  order,  and  each  set  standing  higher  up  and  spreading  open 
as  the  petals  increase  in  size ;  all  the  remaining  petals  placed  on 
in  rows,  gradually  getting  them  to  bend  over,  so  that  the  last 
stand  at  right  angles  with  the  stalk ;  the  calyx  cut  from  pale 
green  stem  paper,  thickened  by  the  use  of  wax,  this  requires  the 
edges  to  be  curled,  so  as  to  give  a  rounded  appearance.  The 
edges  should  be  shaded  with  brown,  which  may  be  applied  with  a 
small  sable  brush;  a  bud  placed  close  to  the  flower,  and  some 
good  dark  leaves  being  added,  we  have  one  of  the  most  perfect 
representations  of  nature  to  be  obtained  in  paper. 

ROSE. 

(Gloire  de  Dijon.) 

Cut  from  pale  yellow  shaded  paper,  petals  Nos.  1  (the  outside 
petal)  and  2,  and  from  shaded  paper  of  a  lighter  shade,  but 
having  pink  in  the  middle  of  the  stripe,  so  placing  the  pat- 
tern on  the  paper  as  to  bring  the  pointed  end  of  it  to  the  darkest 
part  of  the  paper,  and  so  fold  it  as  to  allow  of  eight  petals  being 
cut  at  once.  Sixteen  of  each  size  will  be  required.  Cut  off  a 
proper  length  of  the  medium  cotton  wire,  bend  over  the  top  of  it 
several  times,  so  as  to  make  a  head  to  it  about  the  size  of  a  pea, 


PAPER-FLOWER  MAKING.  139 

on  this  tie  a  few  of  the  proper  stamens,  and  around  it  roll  a  small 
quantity  of  pale  green  wax.  All  the  petals  should  be  treated  as 
follows,  as  a  preparation  for  other  moulding.  Take  eight  petals 
of  a  size,  place  them  on  the  palm  of  the  left  hand,  so  that  they 
can  be  held  in  their  place  by  one  of  the  fingers  of  the  same  hand, 
holding  in  the  right  hand  pin  No.  1,  so  that  it  may  revolve  easily 
round  the  edge  of  the  petals,  held  as  described  in  the  other  hand. 
The  object  of  this  rolling  of  the  edge  is  to  overcome  the  hard  or 
unnatural  look  of  the  paper,  and  is  essential  as  a  preparatory  step 
to  all  other  modeling.  This  done,  turn  the  bunch  of  petals, 
press  them  in  the  center  with  the  finger,  after  which  roll  over  all 
parts  of  it  excepting  the  edge,  with  the  head  of  pin  No.  2,  tins 
will  leave  the  edge  of  the  petals  turned  backwards,  and  this 
moulding  must  be  continued  until  sufficient  roundness  has  been 
obtained. 

Separate  the  petals.  This  is  best  done  from  the  points,  so  as 
not  to  disarrange  the  form  already  given  to  them.  Take  five  of 
the  smallest  petal?,  place  each  on  the  hand  as  before  described 
separately,  and  with  the  head  of  pin  No.  2,  indent  it  deeply  down 
its  center,  beyinnitir/  at  the  top,  so  as  to  curve  the  petal,  that  when 
placed  on  the  foundation  already  prepared  they  will  curl  over  and 
nearly  conceal  it. 

These  must  be  tied  on  with  silk.  To  form  the  groups  of  petals, 
take  two  of  the  smallest,  and  three  of  the  next  size ;  the  smallest 
place  in  front,  the  larger  behind,  and  so  arrange  that  each  petal 
should  be  slightly  elevated  above  the  one  in  front  of  it ;  hold 
them  together  by  the  points,  and  then  open  the  petals  from  the 
top,  so  as  to  be  able  to  insert  the  end  of  a  fine  gum  brush ;  a  mere 
spot  of  gum  is  all  that  is  required,  as  much  as  possible  in  the 
center  of  the  petal,  so  as  to  leave  the  edges  perfectly  free. 

Place  this  bunch  of  petals  on  the  hand,  as  before  directed,  and 
round  it  in  the  same  manner,  only  not  to  the  same  extent.  Five 
or  more  of  the  bunches  or  nests  of  petals  are  required.  Each 
should  be  placed  in  its  proper  position,  and  tied  with  floss  silk. 
The  two  next  sizes  of  petals  must  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner, 


140  PAPER-FLOWER  MAKING. 

and  placed  on  behind  the  bunches  already  fixed,  so  as,  in  fact,  to 
give  to  the  center  of  the  flower  the  appearance  of  being  divided 
into  five  or  more  divisions. 

Petals  No.  3,  require  the  same  rounding  as  applied  to  the  pre- 
ceding, two  or  three  being  placed  together,  giving  them  a  more 
open  form  ;  fix  these  round  the  petals  already  on.  Elevate  them, 
so  as  to  produce  the  cup  shape  observable  in  nearly  all  good  roses. 
As  the  petals  become  larger,  the  thumb  is  found  more  convenient 
than  the  finger,  it  more  quickly  produces  the  round  ness  on  which 
the  beauty  of  a  rose  so  much  depends.  The  larger  petals  must 
be  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  only  the  edges  require  to  turn 
back  with  more  freedom  and  boldness,  and  the  petals  gradually 
receding,  so  that  those  placed  on  last  will  stand  nearly  at  right 
angles  with  the  stem,  in  some  cases  being  even  more  bent  back- 
wards. Two  or  three  of  the  last  may  be  slightly  shaded  with 
green  at  the  base,  and  carmine  and  burnt  sienna  at  the  edge,  so 
as  to  give  the  faded  appearance  of  the  outer  petals.  Frequent 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  illustration  of  the  flower  or  its 
parts  as  the  work  proceeds ;  the  calyx  should  then  be  passed  up 
the  stem,  so  as  to  fit  close  to  the  back  of  the  flower,  and  the  stem 
covered  with  pale  green  stem  paper. 

Add  a  bud  or  two.  These  should  appear  close  under  the  outer 
petals  of  the  flower.  The  leaves  start  from  the  junction  of  these 
stems,  being  set  round,  each  a  little  lower  than  the  preceding. 
They  should  be  colored  and  polished  as  directed  in  "general  ob- 
servations," to  give  them  the  bold  and  waxy  appearance  seen,  in 
this  daservedly  popular  and  beautiful  rose. 

PINK  FUCHSIA. 

(Duchess  of  Lancaster.} 

Place  a  sheet  of  pale  yellow  waxed  muslin  between  two  sheets 
of  pale  pink  shaded  paper.  So  arrange  the  pattern  as  to  bring 
the  points  to  the  white,  and  the  darker  shade  of  color  to  come  to 
about  the  center.  Cut  the  four  petals  from  deep  cherry  paper, 


PAPER-FLOWER  MAKING.  141 

made  thick  as  before  described.  The  sepals,  to  be  placed  on  the 
hand,  and  with  the  head  of  pin  No.  2,  gently  roll  from  the  points, 
so  as  to  produce  a  number  of  faint  lines,  and  also  to  unite  the 
paper  and  wax  firmly  together,  giving  at  the  same  time  the  proper 
transparency  and  gloss.  The  petals  require  considerable  working 
with  the  large  pin,  to  give  them  the  roundness  necessary  after 
they  are  formed.  They  will  require  shading  with  a  mixture  of 
carmine  and  "magenta,"  put  on  with  a  large  tinting  brush,  the 
color  being  almost  dry.  The  pistil  made  of  a  large  Avhite  seed, 
which  must  be  attached  to  a  piece  of  fine  cotton  wire.  About 
two  inches  from  the  edge  of  pistil  roll  round  some  wax  or  cotton 
wool,  then  add  eight  stamens.  These  will  not  be  as  long  as  the 
pistil ;  they  must  be  shaded  with  pink ;  top  of  pistil  of  a  pale 
green  color.  Stamens  may  have  a  small  quantity  of  white  pollen 
on  them ;  and  this  being  finished,  fasten  on  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  wax  the  four  petals,  and  then  tie  them  with  silk.  The 
neck  of  the  flower  can  be  made  either  of  wax  or  wool, the  former 
being  the  best.  The  four  sepals  having  been  properly  bent,  are 
now  placed  on,  great  care  being  taken  in  forming  them  perfectly 
on  the  neck  before  mentioned,  which,  if  it  is  made  of  wax,  can 
be  done  by  rolling  over  each  petal  as  it  is  placed  on  with  stem  of 
ivory  pin ;  but  should  wool  be  used,  the  petals  must  be  fastened 
on  with  gum. 

ARRANGEMENT  OR  GROUPING  OF  FLOWERS. 

The  lighter  flowers,  both  of  form  and  color,  should  be  so  placed 
as  to  be  at  the  top,  excepting  such  flowers  as  passion  flower, 
fuchsia,  etc.,  which  are  drooping  or  climbing  plants. 

Aim  at  simplicity  in  coloring  rather  than  too  great  a  mixture, 
which  gives  a  confused  look. 

The  foliage  is  used  as  a  background ;  there  should  be  no  stint 
of  this.  The  great  fault  observable  in  the  arrangement  of 
bouquets,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  is  that  they  rarely  have 
the  leaves  brought  ;is  prominently  forward  as  they  should  be,  con- 
sequently the  bouquet  loses  both  character  and  elegance. 


142  PAPER-FLOWER  MAKING. 

Ferns,  of  which  there  is  now  so  large  and  beautiful  a  collection, 
add  very  much  to  the  elegance  of  the  bouquet. 

EXAMPLES  IN  GROUPING.  No.  1,  Roses.  Gloire  de  Dijon, 
apricot ;  Geant  de  Bataille,  scarlet  and  purple ;  Aimee  Vibert, 
small  white ;  pink  cabbage ;  forget-me-not ;  maiden  hair  fern. 

No.  2.  Rhododendron,  crimson  ;  red  spotted  do. ;  deep  pink 
do. ;  pale  do. ;  white  do.  Some  large  ferns  and  orange  azaleas 
of  various  shades. 

No.  3.  White  camellias ;  red  camellias ;  pale  yellow  azalea ; 
pink  fuchsia ;  deep  blue  cineraria ;  ribbon  grass. 

No.  4.  Passion  flower  (various) ;  fuchsias ;  thuubergia ;  hop ; 
ivy  leaves. 

LIST  OF  MATERIALS,  TOOLS,  &c. 

Moulding  pins,  moulders,  pincers,  tinting  brushes,  scissors, 
three  sizes  of  cotton  wire,  silk  for  tying,  fine  wire  for  tying, 
gum  water. 

COLORS  IN  POWDER.  Carmine,  burnt  sienna,  Prussian  blue> 
ultramarine,  chrome  1,  2  and  3,  white,  magenta,  violet. 

MOIST  COLORS.     Carmine,  lake,  violet. 

The  papers  most  used  are:  White  tissue,  carmine,  pinks 
(various),  shaded  for  roses  (various),  stem  paper  (green  and 
brown),  violet,  3  shades,  yellows,  scarlet  for  poppies,  etc. 


T. 


FRENOi 


A  BEAUTIFUL  AND  PEACTICAL  PKOCESS 


:POIES 


LEATHER,  SILK  AND  OTHER  FABRICS. 


IT  is  simple  to  perform,  durable,  and  very  effective. 
The  designs  are  printed  in  colors,  upon  paper  so 
prepared  that  after  they  are  cemented  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  article  intended  to  be  decorated,  by 
simply  dampening  the  back  of  the  paper,  it  may 
be  at  once  and  entirely  removed,  and  the  finished 
work  exactly  resemble  painting;  nothing  but  the 
colored  designs  remaining  upon  the  work. 

Suppose  that  a  white  earthenware  or  porcelain 
plate  is  the  object  to  decorate :     Take  the  design, 
and  after  having  cut  off  the  larger  portion  of  the 
margin  of  the  paper,  pass  over  the  colored  design, 
rith  a  fine  brush,  a  slight  coat  of  Fastening  Varnish,  being 


144  THE  FRENCH   ART. 

careful  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  design  and  not  go  beyond  the 
outlines.  When  the  varnish  has  partially  dried,  or  has  become 
"tacky,"  which  will  happen  in  five  or  ten  minutes,  place  the  var- 
nished surface  in  the  position  you  wish  it  to  occupy  upon  the 
plate,  and  then  press  it  well  down  with  the  roller ;  then  take  a 
damp  piece  of  cloth  or  sponge  and  press  well  the  back  of  the  pic- 
ture, (if  you  were  decorating  a  curved  surface,  such  as  a  vase,  the 
ivory  knife  may  bo  used  for  the  purpose),  and  allow  it  to  remain 
for  a  minute  or  two,  then  thoroughly  wet  the  back  of  the  design 
and  raise  the  paper  with  the  hand  evenly  and  carefully.  Now 
wash  the  picture,  which  is  transferred  as  gently  as  possible  with 
the  water  brush,  to  remove  any  soil;  this  done,  carefully  press 
the  work  with  a  piece  of  fine  linen  slightly  wetted,  so  as  to  absorb 
the  water  and  nearly  dry  the  design,  this  prevents  it  from  blister- 
ing and  causes  the  work  to  dry  flat  and  evenly.  Then  after 
having  left  it  at  least  one  day,  apply  a  coat  of  retouching  varnish, 
and  the  work  is  complete. 

To  Decorate  Silk  and  other  Delicate  Fabrics.  Apply  a 
coating  of  fastening  varnish,  and  allow  it  to  dry,  then  with  the 
water  brush,  wash  the  paper  surrounding  the  design  carefully; 
this  removes  from  the  paper  the  preparation  which  would  other- 
wise soil  the  silk ;  now  apply  a  second  coat  of  the  same  varnish, 
and  when  this  has  slightly  dried,  place  the  design  upon  the  silk 
or  other  fabric  to  be  decorated,  and  with  the  roller  press  it  well 
down.  With  the  watjr  brush  wet  the  back  of  the  paper  covering 
the  design  and  the  paper  may  be  at  once  lifted  off. 

Another  Method.  Cut  out  the  design  carefully  and  cover 
it  with  a  thin  coating  of  fastening  varnish,  and  allow  it  to  dry, 
then  lay  it  upon  the  silk  or  other  fabric,  and  roll  thoroughly ; 
dampen  the  back  of  the  paper  with  the  water  brush,  and  lift  it 
off  as  previously  directed. 

To  Decorate  Articles  of  a  Dark  Color.  In  decorating 
Japanned  goods,  or  any  dark  material,  it  is  necessary  to  take  the 


THE   FRENCH  ART.  145 

prepared  pictures  covered  with  white  lead  or  gold  back,  and  fol- 
low the  directions  as  before.  Should  there  be  any  design  you 
wish  to  remove,  or  any  spots  of  varnish  accidentally  dropped 
upon  the  article  decorated,  you  can  easily  remove  it  by  applying 
the  clarified  spirits. 

A  few  of  the  many  articles  which  can  be  easily  and  advan- 
tageously decorated.  Vases,  trinket  stands,  and  other  ornaments 
in  white  china,  with  or  without  a  border  of  gold  ;  tea  or  coffee 
services  in  china,  earthenware,  or  Bohemian  glass ;  dessert  ser- 
vices, flower  pots  and  boxes,  candlesticks,  urn  and  jug  stands, 
carriages,  sleighs,  wagons,  furniture,  tinware,  and  many  other 
china  articles  which  have  been  made  expressly  for  decoration  by 
this  art ;  white  wood  articles,  straw  dinner  mats,  silk  or  cloth 
sofa  cushions,  scent  bags,  slippers,  hand  screens,  fans,  ribbons, 
articles  in  ivory,  book  covers ;  indeed  it  is  difficult  to  say  what 
ornamental  article  may  not  be  thus  decorated,  from  the  panels  of 
a  room  to  the  tiny  articles  of  the  dressing  table. 

To  the  house  decorator  this  art  offers  a  complete  substitute  for 
the  costly  process  of  hand  painting  for  panels  of  rooms,  and  other 
portions  of  his  work  which  require  artistic  embellishment. 

As  to.  the  choice  of  subjects,  of  course  that  must  be  left  to  in- 
dividual taste.  The  variety  is  large,  comprising  flowers,  birds, 
figures  and  landscapes,  of  all  dimensions  and  iti  every  style,  the 
beautiful  products  of  Sevres,  the  works  of  modern  artists,  and 
inlaid  woods. 

The  brushes  may  be  easily  cleaned  with  a  little  of  the  clarified 
spirits,  as  well  as  any  accidental  spots  of  the  varnishes  upon  the 
dress, 

As  all  designs  are  covered  with  gold,  or  plain,  the  latter  will 
show  on  a  Avhite  ground  only,  and  are  mostly  used  for  ladies' 
work.  The  covered  designs  will  show  on  any  ground,  dark  or 
light,  and  are  principally  used  for  manufacturing  purposes,  such 
as  tin,  woodenware,  etc. 


WAX  ART. 


FLOWERS 


AND  FRUIT 


WITH  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR 


MAKING  THE  WAX  AND  MOLDS,  MATERIALS  USED,  ETC. 


»AX  ART  was  supposed  to  have  reached  the 
height  of  perfection  many  years  ago,  but  since 
the  invention  of  the  various  machines  for  cut- 
ting and  molding  designs  into  form  from  wax, 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  work  is  executed, 
and  the  endless  variety  of  artistic  productions 
in  wax  art,  it  is  evident  perfection  has  not  yet 
been  reached,  and  we  are  led  to  believe  it  sus- 
ceptible of  attaining  a  still  higher  degree  of 
excellence.  The  reason  of  its  being  taught  so 
little  during  the  past  few  years  is  owing  principally  to  the  fact 
of  its  simplicity  since  the  use  of  molds  and  cutters,  so  artistically 
arranged  that  the  form  of  any  desired  leaf  or  flower  may  be 
chiseled  out  at  will,  from  the  varieties  of  colored  wax  before  you. 


WAX  AKT.  147 

Nothing  in  fancy  work  excels  the  art  of  making  Wax  Flowers 
for  interest,  amusement  and  fascination.  Only  a  few  tools  are 
required.  A  good'eye  for  colors  and  a  little  taste  in  arranging 
them.  There  are  t\ro  distinct  methods.  First, 

By  Molding  Them.  All  tabular  flowers  must  be  made  by 
molds,  viz :  Calla  lily,  lily  of  the  valley,  iris,  morning  glory, 
scarlet  cypress  vine,  stephanotas,  and  all  other  flowers  tubular  or 
labiated.  A  good  set  of  wooden  molds,  carved  carefully,  is  the 
best,  but  any  lady  can  prepare  her  own  molds  in  the  following 
matjner.  Get  your  flower  fresh  as  possible,  and  stand  it  in  water 
to  give  it  perfect  strength.  Fix  a  little  pasteboard  box,  or  any 
small  cup  shaped  box ;  prepare  these  yourself  with  strips  of  paste- 
board, some  larger  or  smaller,  just  according  to  the  size  of  leaf  or 
flower  you  intend  to  mold  from ;  mix  the  finest  dentists'  plaster 
paris,  (practice  alone  can  perfect  one  in  the  proper  consistency), 
and  pour  it  into  the  flower,  having  enough  mixed  to  fill  it  and 
cover  every  little  part  of  the  flower,  let  it  remain  until  hard,  tear 
off  the  flower,  and  you  have  a, perfect  mold,  every  little  vein  and 
impression  perfectly  taken.*  With  a  sharp  knife  trim  off  all 
ragged  edges  and  superabundant  plaster,  leaving  yoxir  mold  small 
as  possible,  and  lighter  to  handle.  These  leaf  molds  are  much 
better  for  all  uses,  even  for  sheeted  wax  flowers,  than  those  metal 
molds  that  cut  the  wax,  and  never  give  the  fibrous  look  needed 
for  a  natural  looking  leaf.  The  lily  of  the  valley  needs  a  wooden 
mold,  the  flower  is  so  delicate  a  plaster  mold  cannot  be  made. 

Preparation  of  the  Wax  for  Molded  Flowers.  These 
recipes  are  of  the  times  of  our  great  grandmothers,  who  kept  a 
few  bees  in  their  gardens,  making  honey  from  the  fields  of  sweet 
clover,  the  apple  and  other  fruit  blossoms  in  the  spring  of  the  year, 
and  buckwheat  patches  in  the  summer.  The  wax  was  brown, 
and  they  bleached  it  by  melting  it,  clarifying  it  by  selecting  the 
whitest,  running  it  off  in  thin  sheets,  and  lay  ing  it  in  the  hot  sun 
to  bleach.  All  bleacheries  do  this  on  a  larger  or  smaller  scale, 


148  WAX  ART. 

After  bleaching  the  wax  white  as  muslin,  you  can  make  your 
parlor  mantel  ornaments  of  it. 

Keep  a  set  of  tin  cups  for  your  different  tints  of  wax,  your 
white  cup  being  the  largest. 

To  Mold  a  Calla  Lily.  Have  ready  a  basin  of  hot  soap 
suds,  strong  as  possible  of  soap,  and  hot,  so  that  your  lily  will  be 
smooth,  not  lumpy  or  bubbly.  Melt  your  wax  by  setting  the  tin 
cup  in  boiling  water,  as  glue  is  melted.  To  every  pound  of  white 
wax  add  a  tube  of  Winsor  &  Newton's  flake  white  paint,  dis- 
solved and  thoroughly  mixed  with  one  tablespoonful  balsam  fir, 
or  Venetian  turpentine,  and  half  table  spoonful  of  dissolved  gum 
mastic,  the  whitest  possible.  This  is  a  good  recipe  for  sheeting 
wax  for  your  own  use,  and  will  be  given  below  in  preparations 
for  sheeted  wax  flowers. 

Your  liquid  being  thoroughly  mixed  in  two  cups,  your  white 
and  yellow  chrome  cup,  the  yellow  prepared  exactly  like  the 
white,  only  yellow  chrome  paint  substituted  for  the  white  tube 
paint ;  your  molds  all  prepared  by  standing  soaked  in  the  hot 
soap  suds,  you  commence  with  the  yellow  cup,  dipping  your 
spadix  mold,  or  the  center  of  the  lily,  in  the  yellow  cup,  making 
as  many  spadix  as  you  wish  to  make  lilies.  After  finishing  dip- 
ping spadix,  you  take  your  white  cup  and  large  mold,  dipping 
once  and  letting  it  cool  a  moment,  and  then  immersing  the 
second  time,  to  give  a  double  thickness  to  the  heavy  portions  of 
the  flower. 

A  hundred  lilies  can  be  molded  in  an  hour. 

The  stems  of  wire  can  be  prepared  next.  Fasten  the  spadix 
to  the  stem,  and  slip  the  stem  through  the  hole  at  the  bottom  of 
the  molded  flower,  then  with  a  brush  dipped  in  the  hot  green  cup 
solder  the  whole  together,  spadix,  stem  and  flower. 

All  molded  flowers  are  made  exactly  alike.  All  tools  dipped 
first  in  hot  suds  for  every  flower,  after  in  the  hot  wax.  It  is  well, 
as  a  rule,  to  make  all  white  flowers  first — afterward,  the  colored 
flowers, 


WAX  ABT.  149 

All  variegated  flowers  are  painted  with  a  brush,  using  Winsor 
&  Newton's  moist  water  colors.  All  yellow  flowers,  like  Thun- 
bergia,  spadix  of  lilies,  etc.,  by  dipping  in  the  yellow  cup.  A 
scarlet  cup  for  scarlet  flowers,  blue  for  blue  flowers,  rose  colored 
for  roses,  Naples  yellow  for  sofrano  and  tea  rose  tints. 

All  roses  and  double  flowers  are  made  of  separate  petals  molded 
and  joined  together  afterward. 

All  large  leaves  should  be  molded,  and  all  small  leaves,  all 
dipped  in  the  green  cup. 

Your  green  cup  is  made  of  all  your  refuse  colors  melted  to- 
gether, and  the  tube  green  tint  added.  Never  use  any  darker 
tubes  than  No.  1  chrome  green.  Your  olive  and  other  tints  are 
made  by  the  refuse  tints  thrown  in  from  the  drippings  of  red, 
yellow,  purple,  and  odd  tints. 

Directions  for  Sheeting  Wax.  To  every  pound  of 
bleached  wax,  after  dissolving  thoroughly  in  an  outer  crucible  of 
hot  water,  add  1  oz.  balsam  of  fir,  or  Venetian  turpentine,  in 
which  dissolve  a  little  resin,  white  or  rnastic.  If  white  wax 
is  desired,  one  and  one-half  tube  Winsor  &  Newton's  flake 
white  paint  should  be  added — yellow,  orange  or  rose,  and  just 
what  other  tints  are  fequired.  All  sheeted  wax  by  machine  is 
first  molded  into  square  blocks  or  bricks^  and  the  machine  slices 
off  the  sheets.  But  these  machines  are  expensive,  and  no  lady 
cares  to  have  one  who  only  makes  wax  flowers  for  pleasure. 

Green  wax  is  made  from  the  drippings  of  all  the  other  tints, 
and  from  the  yellow  unbleached  wax,  with  green  tube  paint 
added. 

After  preparing  your  cup  of  melted  Avax,  have  ready  a  plaster 
mold  made  on  a  tea  saucer  or  tea  plate.  Dip  your  mold  in  hot 
soap  suds,  for  flower  molding,  and  with  a  small  ladle  pour 
over  its  wet  surface  the  melted  wax,  trimming  off  the  sides  and 
making  even  sheets,  remelting  the  clippings  and  resheeting  it. 

A  wooden  spaddle  size  of  ordinary  sheet  wax  is  sometimes 
made,  and  used  instead  of  the  plaster  mold,  called  paddle  ivaz, 


150  WAX   ART. 

and  a  great  many  teachers  use  a  bottle,  dipping  the  bottle,  and 
forming  wax  thin  at  one  end,  thicker  at  the  other.  Either 
phister,  wood  or  glass  must  be  dipped  in  the  hot  suda  between 
every  dipping  in  hot  melted  wax. 

Wax  Fruit  is  made  in  molds,  and  is  always  used  with  the 
paints  in  preparing  the  crude  wax,  and  painted  afterwards  with 
dry  powder  paint. 

Almost  all  molds  for  Wax  Fruit  should  be  made  in  halves — 
pears  in  three  pieces — and  some  fruits  require  the  mold  in  sev- 
eral pieces.  Unless  the  molds  are  perfect  the  fruit  will  be  de- 
fective, and  nothing  can  make  it  beautiful  when  it  is  once 
molded  wrong. 

Your  fruit  should  be  perfect,  and  in  making  your  molds  care 
should  be  taken  that  there  are  no  open  places  or  leaks  in  the 
molds.  Grease  your  lemon,  apple,  orange,  or  whatever  is  to 
be  molded,  well  first  in  every  part.  Have  ready  your  pasteboard 
cup,  made  a  trifle  larger  than  your  fruit,  nearly  filling  your  cup 
with  the  plaster,  mixed  with  cold  water  to  the  consistency  of 
pound  cake  unbaked.  Your  fruit  being  oiled,  be  very  careful 
to  sink  it  down  just  half  in  the  dissolved  plaster.  If  you  do 
not  get  in  half,  or  if  you  sink  it  in  more  than  half,  you  will  have 
an  imperfect  mold,  and  your  fruit  will  be  defective.  A  little 
care  makes  it  perfect 

As  soon  as  the  plaster  is  a  little  hardened,  with  a  pen  knife 
make  four  holes  in  the  outer  plaster  rim,  not  touching  the  fruit. 
These  holes,  half  an  inch  deep,  are  to  hold  the  top  of  your  mold  ; 
lock  it  into  the  lower  half,  blosv  off  all  loose  pieces  of  plaster,  and 
when  completely  hardened,  oil  the  top  of  the  fruit  and  the  new 
half  plaster  mold,  and  the  holes  for  the  locks ;  then  prepare  the 
second  half.  Be  sure  and  have  your  plaster  fresh  and  strong, 
when  thoroughly  mixed  to  the  same  consistency  as  the  first,  pour 
over  the  fruit  into  the  pasteboard  cup,  and  even  it  all  over. 
Leave  it  standing  a  good  half  hour,  then  remove  the  pasteboard 
Cup,  and  if  the  mold  seems  hardened,  carefully  open  it,  being 


WAX  ART.  151 

careful  not  to  break  off  the  locks,  for  upon  the  perfection  of  these 
consists  the  perfection  of  the  fruit. 

In  a  basket  of  fruit,  lady  apples  are  beautiful,  crab  apples, 
Seckle  pears,  Bartlett  pears,  a  lemon,  an  orange  or  two,  Califor- 
nia plums,  t\vo  peaches,  and  grapes  are  desirable.  Two  pounds 
of  wax  will  make  this  elegant  variety.  None  of  the  fruit  should 
be  large — all  small,  high  colors,  and  perfect  in  painting. 

After  preparing  your  set  of  molds,  prepare  your  wax,  as  be- 
fore directed,  and  there  should  be  twelve  gill,  or  half-pint  cups 
kept  ready  for  this  work,  with  the  different  tints.  A  small 
sharp  pouring  spout  on  each  cup  is  a  great  help.  The  half -pint 
cups  being  generally  used  for  apples,  peaches,  pears,  oranges  and 
lemons ;  the  plums,  cherries,  and  little  fruits  are  made  with  the 
gill  cups. 

All  fruit  makers,  master*,  will  tell  you  to  be  very  careful  and 
not  get  too  deep  tints ;  for  a  lemon  use  common  lemon  chrome 
paint,  dry ;  orange,  orange  chrome,  dry,  and  after  making  those 
two  fruits,  you  make  from  the  same  cups  your  apples,  peaches 
and  pears,  because  the  solid,  clear  color  is  needed  first,  and  after, 
you  can  paint  them  to  their  natural  tint.  1st,  Lemon.  Match 
the  color  of  the  wax  to  the  lemon  you  imitate.  Dry  patent  pow- 
dered yellow,  gives  a  splendid  lemon  tint. 

After  melting  and  tinting  your  wax,  two  cakes  for  one  lemon, 
have  ready  your  mold — remember  that  every  mold  must  be 
soaked  in  hot,  strong  soap  suds — have  the  upper  half  ready  to 
put  on  as  soon  as  your  lower  half  is  filled  with  the  hot  wax. 
Pour  in  the  even  half  of  the  mold  with  the  melted  wax  first. 
Kever  allow  any  to  slop  over  the  edge.  Place  on  the  upper 
half  immediately  and  lock  closely  together,  holding  them  clasped 
and  turning  them  gently  over  and  over,  keeping  every  part  in  a 
slow,  steady  motion  until  the  liquid  sound  has  all  ceased.  About 
ten  minutes  is  needed  to  every  piece  of  fruit  the  size  of  a  lemon 
or  an  orange. 

Let  them  stand  inside  the  mold  for  some  time,  opening  very 
carefully.  If  your  meld  is  perfect,  very  little  trimming  will  be 


152  WAX   ART, 

ivt|uired.  With  a  sharp  penknife  remove  overy  trace  of  the  rim 
where  the  fruit  mold  joined  together,  and  wash  off  with  ben- 
zine, rubbing  a  little  dry  powder  over  the  lemon  to  give  it  a  fresh 
picked  appearance,  and  painting  the  stem  end  with  water  colors. 

Orange  is  made  precisely  like  the  lemon,  only  orange  chrome 
is  used  instead  of  lemon. 

Apples  are  made  from  the  lemon  cup  or  the  orange  cup,  with 
a  little  green  chrome  added  to  vary  the  foundation  tint,  and  after 
molding,  trimming  and  washing  off  with  benzine,  paint  red  with 
dry  carmine,  producing  a  splendid  effect. 

Peaches  molded  from  the  lemon  cup,  or  orange,  according 
to  the  tint  required.  The  fault  with  fruit-makers  consists  in  get- 
ting too  deep  a  color  in  the  cup,  or  melted  tint,  and  that  always 
produces  the  coarse  effect  of  the  fruits  usually  displayed.  Peaches 
should  be  molded  of  a  very  delicate  foundation  tint,  first 
trimmed  while  hot  from  the  mold,  as  little  rubbing  as  possible 
on  them,  painted  hot,  and  after  the  carmine  cheeks  are  rubbed 
on,  (dry  powdered  carmine  being  used),  white  flock  should  be 
rubbed  all  over  them,  to  give  them  the  soft,  downy  effect. 

Plums  are  painted  with  ultramarine  or  indigo  blue  added  to 
the  carmine. 

Grapes  are  made  over  glass  globes,  blown  for  the  purpose,  first 
stemmed,  then  dipped  in  green  or  purple  wax,  and  bloomed  over 
witli  corn  rneal  (sifted  on  them). 

The  California  grapes  are  easy  to  imitate,  for  the  green  wax, 
after  dipping,  simply  needs  a  little  carmine  painting  outside. 

No  cross,  piece  of  statuary,  or  vase,  can  ever  be  taken  from 
the  molds  unless  the  molds  are  made  in  a  number  of  pieces. 
After  running  the  body  of  a  cross,  there  must  be  a  standard 
through  the  upright  before  it  hardens,  to  support  it.  Pour  the 
lower  part  on  afterward. 

Molds  for  Leaves,  consisting  of  a  great  variety  of  beautiful 
formations,  from  almost  every  tree  or  shrub  in  nature's  garden, 


WAX   AKT.  153 

Among  the  number  you  have  to  select  from  are :  Oak,  maple, 
myrtle,  lily  of  the  valley,  ivy,  willow,  currant,  cherry,  grape, 
orange,  strawberry,  blackberry,  chestnut,  etc.,  etc. 

Wet  the  molds  before  placing  them  in  wax,  to  prevent  them 
from  sticking.  It  will  require  but  a  little  time  for  you  to  become 
familiar  with  the  method  of  cutting  and  molding  the  leaves  and 
flowers,  and  by  the  aid  of  your  good  judgment  and  exquisite  taste 
you  may  soon  be  able  to  arrange  in  form  almost  any  leaf  or 
flower  you  may  desire  to  see  produced  in  wax. 

Wires.  The  wire  used  for  making  the  stems  and  branches 
is  covered  with  silk  or  cotton,  and  of  different  colors,  and  can  be 
had  in  coils  or  by  the  spool,  each  spool  containing  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  yards.  Paper  wire  comes  in  bunches.  Silver  wire 
on  spools  or  in  skeins. 

Steel  Molding  Pins.  The  molding  pins  are  used  for  mold- 
ing and  changing  the  wax  leaves  and  flowers  into  form  desired, 
before  placing  them  upon  the  stem.  They  are  made  of  steel, 
with  glass  and  porcelain  heads.  Sizes  run  from  1  to  8. 

Moss  can  be  had  by  the  package,  or  small  sprig,  for  moss 
roses. 

Miscellaneous  Articles.  Glass  shades,  glass  balls  for  imi- 
tating currants,  grapes,  cherries,  and  other  fruit,  small  sable 
brushes,  and  dry  or  liquid  colors  for  tinting. 

The  Wax,  consisting  of  a  great  variety  of  colors,  you  can 
purchase  by  the  sheet.  The  size  of  a  sheet  of  wax  is  3|xo£  inches. 

Having  given  those  who  desire  to  do  wax  work  an  outline  of 
the  art,  with  the  materials  used,  and  the  method  of  applying 
them,  I  leave  the  rest  with  the  learner,  who  requires  taste  for  the 
nrt,  and  perseverance  to  acquire  excellence, 


SPRINKLE  WORK 


FOR  THE  BEAUTIFUL  DECORATION  OF 


WDDD  AND  CHINA  ORNAMENTS, 


N  idea  of  turning  the  standard  accomplishments 
of  the  day  into  a  remunerative,  as  well  as  an 
agreeable  occupation  for  one's  leisure  hours, 
has  in  the  past  few  years  so  asserted  itself  in 
the  refined  female  world,  that  the  study  of 
wood  painting,  and  etching  with  the  pen,  as 
well  as  the  production  of  sprinkle  work,  are 
now  all  much  sought  after. 

There  is  no  other  handiAvork  that  offers  such 
enjoyment,  to  those  possessed  of  a  sense  of  the 
beautiful,  as  the  different  methods  of  wood  decoration.  While 
the  study  and  practice  requisite  in  difficult  etching,  and  the  dec- 
orative embellishment  of  useful  articles  with  stylish  ornamenta- 


SPKINKLE  WORK.  155 

tion,  makes  one  an  acknowledged  artist,  so  through  the  medium 
of  sprinkle  work,  with  the  ever  new  and  beautiful  effects  to  be 
produced  by  the  aid  of  pressed  leaves  and  flowers,  or  by  the  sim- 
ple method  of  painting  bouquets  and  landscapes  upon  wood, 
there  is  endless  scope  for  the  taste  of  the  amateur. 

Sprinkle  work  upon  wood,  the  subject  of  this  article,  is  easily 
acquired.  In  the  manipulation  of  the  materials  required,  good 
taste  is  all  that  is  necessary,  although  a  knowledge  of  drawing  is 
of  great  advantage.  Besides  the  possession  of  the  necessary 
utensils  for  the  production  of  sprinkle  work,  one  should  not  fail 
to  secure  a  rich  assortment  of  leaves,  grasses  and  flowers,  adapted 
to  the  purpose.  A  walk  in  the  country  in  the  early  spring  or 
autumn  will  provide  one  witli  a  goodly  quantity  of  lovely  mate- 
rial ;  or  suitable  specimens  can  be  procured  from  some  neighbor- 
ing florist.  There  are  so  many  fancy  articles  prepare,!  for  this 
work,  upwards  of  a  thousand,  that  it  is  well  to  have  a  great 
variety  of  leaves,  grasses  and  other  designs,  such  as  figures, 
initials,  monograms,  mottoes,  arabesques,  butterflies,  etc.,  cut 
from  paper,  so  that  one  can  produce  from  the  simplest  to  the 
most  elaborate  arrangement. 

The  pressing  and  drying  of  leaves  is  so  well  known  that  we 
need  not  refer  to  it  here,  but  it  is  well  to  select  leaves  of  perfect 
form,  as  the  correcting  of  deficiencies  sometimes  destroys  the  en- 
tire work.  The  leaves  best  adapted  for  this  work  are :  Ivy,  oak, 
clover,  geranium,  rose,  myrtle,  gentian,  maple,  edelweiss  and 
ferns,  avoiding  the  thick,  fleshy  foliage  plants. 

It  is  advisable  for  beginners  to  arrange  their  designs  upon  a 
piece  of  wood  or  paper  beforehand,  to  judge  of  the  effect. 
Bouquets  are  appropriate  for  the  smaller  articles  to  be  decorated, 
wreaths  for  larger  or  round  pieces.  For  those  more  advanced, 
Konewka's  silhouettes  are  recommended.  AVith  these  and  the 
addition  of  a  little  painting,  highly  artistic  effects  can  be 
produced. 

Utensils.    The  necessary  utensils  can  be  procured  in  com- 


156  SPRINKLE  WORK. 

plete  outfits,  neatly  arranged  in  cases  of  different  sizes.  The 
contents  are  as  follows  :  One  wire  sieve,  with  handle,  one  coarse 
painting  brush,  one  fine  painting  brush,  three  hundred  pins,  one 
small  pair  of  pincers,  several  china  saucers,  one  tube  prepared 
Vandyke  brown,  one  drawing  pon,  one  Herbarium  with  artificial 
leaves  and  space  for  the  preservation  of  natural  leaves  and  flow- 
ers, one  envelope  containing  initials,  six  models  of  leaves. 

In  working  with  the  sieve  and  brush,  an  irregular  distribution 
of  color  is  mad»  almost  impossible.  The  principal  colors  used 
in  sprinkle  work  are  the  following :  Prepared  sepia,  Vandyke 
brown,  black,  and  dark  green.  A  mixture  of  black  and  brown 
will  produce  quite  a  number  of  shades.  The  colors  used  are 
water  colors,  specially  prepared,  and  come  either  in  tubes  in  a 
moist  state,  or  in  cakes  which  require  moistening.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  get  the  color  too  thick. 

Process  of  Sprinkling  on  Wood.  After  the  materials, 
leaves,  etc.,  requisite  for  the  work  have  been  selected,  take  the 
article  to  be  decorated  and  score  it  gently  with  a  small  quantity 
of  powdered  pumice  stone,  applied  with  a  flannel  pad,  this  frees 
it  from  any  roughness  or  dust  that  may  have  come  upon  it 
through  handling  or  transportation.  Next  take  a  clean  cloth, 
and  wipe  all  the  powder  off.  Now  prepare  the  color  to  be  used 
in  a  small  porcelain  saucer,  above  all,  being  careful  it  is  suffi- 
ciently diluted  to  flow  freely,  not  muddy  •,  about  the  size  of  a  pea 
taken  from  the  tube  is  sufficient  quantity  of  color  to  a  teaspoonf ul 
of  water.  The  dried  leaves  or  designs  are  then  fastened  to  the 
wooden  article,  by  means  of  pins ;  this  proceeding  must  be  care- 
fully carried  out,  the  points,  sides  and  stems  must  be  well  secured, 
and  lie  perfectly  flat  upon  the  object.  In  wreaths,  the  stems 
should  be  so  arranged  that  they  come  together  in  the  center,  in 
order  to  accomplish  a  pretty  ensemble.  Now  take  the  sieve  in 
one  hand  and  the  brush  in  the  other,  dip  the  brush  lightly  into 
the  diluted  color,  that  it  may  not  be  too  heavily  charged  with  the 
color,  press  it  gently  upon  a  piece  of  paper,  and  let  it  glide  back 


SPRINKLE  WORK.  157 

and  forth  over  the  sieve,  holding  the  latter  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion above  the  object.  In  this  manner  a  fine  shower  is  produced, 
which  is  kept  up  until  the  proper  shade  is  acquired.  Blots,  and 
where  the  color  has  run  together,  should  be  removed  immediately 
with  blotting  paper. 

The  final  arrangement  of  the  wreath  should  be  such  that 
the  leaves  and  grasses  which  extend  out  furthest,  and  are  to 
have  the  darkest  shade,  should  be  fastened  last,  over  the  others, 
so  that  they  can  be  first  and  more  easily  removed  with  the 
pincers.  After  the  top  layer  of  leaves,  etc.,  has  been  removed, 
where  spaces  are  now  perfectly  white,  the  design  should  be  ex- 
amined, whether  any  of  the  others  have  been  displaced,  proceed 
with  the  sprinkle  work  as  before,  and  remove  from  time  to  time, 
the  leaves  in  such  a  manner  that  those  which  are  to  be  left  en- 
tirely white,  are  left  to  be  removed  last  of  all ;  the  others  are 
removed  first,  according  to  the  shade  required.  The  spaces  of 
those  removed  last  are  also  spattered,  but  very  lightly,  so  that 
they  may  not  be  too  glaring. 

The  beginner  will  no  doubt  content  herself  to  produce  only 
such  work  in  one  shade;  with  more  experience  a  variety  of 
shades  may  be  attempted.  Those  having  more  practice  will  not 
be  satisfied  with  these  alone,  but  after  the  bouquet  or  garland  is 
finished  in  different  shades,  will  by  means  of  carefully  spattering 
the  separate  leaves,  seek  to  bring  out  a  fine  shading  and  thereby 
produce  a  more  perfect  work ;  in  this  case,  the  entire  design, 
with  the  exception  of  the  part  of  the  leaf  to  be  shaded,  must  be 
covered  with  paper,  after  it  is  perfectly  dry,  so  that  the  color  is 
not  distributed  further  than  the  part  desired.  Through  this 
later  and  more  difficult  work  the  whole  is  brought  out  with  a 
plastic  effect  from  the  surface,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  sepa- 
rate layers  of  the  leaves  removed  would  appear  flat  and  monot- 
onous in  their  extensions. 

Lastly,  the  pen  is  taken,  and  what  the  foregoing  process  does 
not  supply,  is  put  in  by  hand,  to  complete  the  work.  Take  the 
same  color,  only  thicker,  and  draw  in  the  veins,  and  if  necessary 


158  SPRINKLE  WORK. 

the  entire  outlines,  to  bring  out  the  work  more  boldly.  This 
being  linislu>d,  the  cleaning  of  the  utensils  should  not  be  over- 
looked. The  dried  leaves  place  carefully  in  the  herbarium,  the 
brush  and  sieve  wash  thoroughly  in  water,  the  finished  article 
allow  to  dry  in  a  room  (not  too  warm),  and  after  a  day  or  two 
the  varnishing  and  polishing  may  take  place,  in  order  to  give  it, 
aside  from  durability  and  practical  purpose,  a  more  brilliant  finish 
and  higher  value  to  that  which  has  been  accomplished  with  such 
care. 

Varnishing  and  Polishing.  Procure  a  bottle  of  "wood 
varnish,"  prepared  expressly  for  the  purpose.  This  should  be 
applied  to  smaller  articles,  as  its  peculiar  properties  make  the 
polishing  unnecessary.  This  varnish  is  applied  by  means  of  a 
soft  flat  brush,  in  a  room  entirely  free  from  dust,  and  of  warm 
temperature ;  the  brush  strokes  should  be  made  from  the  center 
of  the  article  towards  its  edges,  and  according  to  its  shape.  Re- 
peat from  six  to  eight  times.  Flat  articles  more  readily  take 
the  polish  than  round  ones.  Before  putting  on  the  separate 
coats,  tiie  previous  one  should  be  thoroughly  dry.  After  the  last 
coat  is  dry,  apply  a  little  powdered  pumice  stone,  by  means  of  a 
moist  pad,  and  make  the  uneven  places  in  the  varnish  smooth  by 
rubbing.  "When  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  is  obtained,  (this 
manipulation  is  omitted  in  varnishing  articles  that  are  turned, 
because  unnecessary),  then  apply  the  varnish  once  more  in  the 
same  manner,  for  the  last  time,  and  the  article  will  thereby  ob- 
tain a  glossy  wood  polish.  This  is  left  in  a  temperate  room,  free 
from  dust,  for  two  days,  when  it  will  be  thoroughly  dry  and 
hardened,  and  ready  to  be  turned  over  for  the  object  it  is  in- 
tended. As  before  mentioned,  we  advise  this  method  only  for 
articles  of  small  compass.  Tables,  etc.,  we  advise  to  have  fin- 
ished by  a  regular  furniture  polisher,  for  the  smooth  finish  can- 
not be  accomplished  by  an  amateur.  It  is  easily  conceived  that 
by  this  process  really  wonderful  effects  may  be  produced,  when 
the  artist  has  taste,  and  devotes  care  and  time  to  the  work. 


SPRINKLE  WORK.  159 

Sprinkle  Work  on  China.  It  may  not  be  generally 
known  that  the  same  effects  as  produced  on  wood  can  also  be 
produced  on  china  ware,  the  manipulation  being  slightly  differ- 
ent. Instead  of  water-colors,  the  ceramic  or  enamel  colors  are 
used,  (Dresden  or  LaCroix).  They  come  in  tubes,  in  a  moist 
state,  and  are  diluted  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  with  a  few  drops 
of  oil  of  anise  or  cloves.  Those  doing  botli  wood  and  china 
sprinkle  work  will  do  well  to  secure  an  extra  brush  and  sieve, 
which  are  to  be  had  separate  from  the  outfit  boxes,  and  use  these 
for  the  mineral  colors  only.  The  leaves  and  grasses  are  fastened 
by  means  of  dissolved  gum  arable,  being  careful  to  scrape  off 
any  particles  of  the  gum  that  may  adhere  to  the  china  after  the 
leaves  have  been  removed,  before  sprinkling  over  the  blank  spaces. 
When  the  leaves  are  placed  upon  the  article  singly,  and  the  de- 
sired shade  is  produced,  lay  it  in  a  warm  place,  over  a  register  if 
possible,  and  the  leaves  will  come  off  as  the  gum  separates  from 
the  ware,  when  the  sprinkling  may  be  resumed,  and  the  proper 
shading  given  to  heighten  the  effect. 

Veins  are  drawn  in  with  a  crowquill  pen,  but  the  color  must 
be  properly  mixed  to  prevent  it  spreading.  Really  beautiful 
decorations  can  be  made  by  using  ferns  and  maiden  hair  to  or- 
nament tiles,  flower  pots,  etc.  If  the  leaves,  such  as  the  maple, 
and  others  that  grow  bright  with  the  first  frosts  of  autumn,  are  to 
have  their  natural  tints,  the  piece  is  taken  to  be  "fired,"  which 
fastens  the  background,  so  that  their  colors  can  be  washed  in 
without  fear  of  injury  to  the  groundwork.  The  most  useful 
colors  for  monochrome  work  in  the  Lacroix  colors,  are  the  fol- 
lowing: Brown,  No.  4  or  17,  sepia,  brown-green  No.  6,  dark 
green  No.  7,  Victoria  blue,  and  violet  of  iron.  If  the  Dresden 
colors  (Mullcr  &  Ilennig's)  are  used,  which  are  preferable  on  ac- 
count of  their  rich  and  soft  appearance,  the  following  are  rec- 
ommended :  Dark  brown  No.  30,  chocolate-brown  No.  36,  sepia 
No.  28,  olive  green  No.  11,  shading  green  No.  10,  and  dark  blue 
No.  13.  When  the  work  is  finished,  take  it  to  the  china  decora- 
tor and  have  it  "fired." 


10U  riMiT1-:::-!.::  A\v,r:x. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  the  best  French  china  for  sprinkle 
work,  as  it  is  almost  entirely  covered  with  color. 

Ladies  who  do  not  paint  on  china,  but  desire  something  differ- 
ent from  the  ordinary  stamped  work,  that  is  all  that  can  be  had 
in  decorated  ware  for  common  use,  will  find  this  an  easy  and  de- 
lightful way  of  ornamenting  Ihe  white  ware  with  some  favorite 
flower  or  fern,  and  so  have  something  original,  and  that  can  be 
readily  duplicated,  should  any  piece  be  broken,  one  of  the  objec- 
tions to  the  stamped  sets  being  the  difficulty  and  expense  in 
replacing  odd  pieces. 

To  those  affected  by  the  odor  of  turpentine,  we  would  recom- 
mend the  use  of  Hancock  &  Son's  Worcester  moist  and  water- 
colors  for  china. 

Faience.  Ivory  white  and  other  soft  wares  will  answer,  and 
the  result  will  always  be  a  pleasing  one  if  a  little  care  is  taken  in 
the  execution  of  this  branch  of  decoration. 


PEARL  EMBROIDERY 


*DW  ITELITET,* 


N  'Jhd  imitation  of  pearl,  nothing  has  yet 
presented  itself  so  favorable  to  the  writer 
as  the  beautiful  and  new  method  of  pre- 
paring fish  scales  for  embroidery.  You 
may  take  the  scales  from  a  large  size  fish, 
the  larger  the  scales  the  easier  they  are  to 
handle.  Lay  them  in  salt  water  for  a  few 
hours,  until  quite  well  cleansed,  after  which  wipe  them 
clean,  and  place  them  between  two  sheets  of  writing 
paper,  and  lay  a  weight  on  them,  allowing  it  to  re- 
main a  whole  day,  until  they  are  dry  and  hard,  when 
they  are  ready  for  further  use.  Now  draw  tho  pattern 
of  any  favored  leaf,  or  whatever  you  wish  on  the  scale,  with  pencil, 
and  cut  it  out  with  small  scissors.  If  you  are  conversant  with 
the  form  of  leaves,  you  can  save  time  by  cutting  out  the  leaf 
without  first  drawing  the  outlines.  Draw  in  the  veins  of  tho 
leaves  next  with  a  needle.  Stretch  your  dark  velvet  tightly  to  an 
embroidery  frame,  place  the  pattern  which  you  wish  to  copy  be- 
fore you,  and  imitate  it  by  sewing  the  leaves,  one  at  a  time,  on 
the  velvet  with  fine  gold  thread,  and  the  leaf  stalks  and  tendrils 
embroidered  with  the  same.  Wet  the  thread  before  using,  to 
render  it  ilexible. 


FEAfiJEBM^FLOWERS, 


HOEVER  may  be  so  fortunate  as  to  have  in  their  pos- 
session fine  feathers  can  certainly  make  fine  flowers. 
Have  at  hand  gum  in  solution,  French  paper  for 
winding  stems,  and  wire  of  different  sizes.  Draw 
the  under  side  of  the  feather  gently  over  the  edge 
of  your  penknife  to  bend  it  in  the  required  direc- 
tion ;  make  a  lump  of  bookbinder's  thick  paste  or 
wax  on  the  end  of  a  wire  for  a  stalk,  and  begin 
your  flower  by  sticking  the  smallest  size  feathers 
into  it  for  a  center;  place  other  feathers  of  the 
same  kind,  but  larger  in  size,  around  in  order. 
Choose  green  feathers  for  leaves  and  calyx,  and  pure  white  ones 
for  japonicas  and  white  roses.  Twist  the  ends  of  the  same  on  a 
wire,  and  make  fast  with  gum,  glue,  paste,  or  other  similar  ad- 
hesive substance.  Be  careful  to  select  feathers  of  the  same  kind 
for  the  same  flower.  Arrange  in  a  vase,  and  cover  to  keep  free 
from  dust.  In  this,  as  in  all  kinds  of  fancy  work,  let  taste  and 
neatness  govern  the  process. 

It  will  often  be  found  necessary  to  color  the  feathers  to  give 
the  desired  variety  of  hues;  this  can  easily  be  done  by  at- 
tending to  the  following  directions  r  Put  the 'feathers  into  hot 
water,  then  drain  them ;  rinse  two  or  three  times  in  clear  cold 


FEATHER  FLOWERS.  163 

water ;  place  them  on  a  tray,  over  which  a  cloth  has  been  spread, 
before  a  good  fire ;  as  they  dry,  draw  them  gently  into  shape  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  finger. 

To  DYE  FEATHERS  BLUE.  Into  about  three  cents'  worth  of 
oil  of  vitriol  mix  as  much  of  the  best  indigo  in  powder ;  let  it 
stand  one  or  two  days.  When  wanted  for  use,  shake  it  Avell,  and 
into  a  quart  of  boiling  water  put  one  tablespoonf  ul  of  the  liquid, 
Stir  well,  put  the  feathers  in,  and  let  them  simmer  a  few  minutes. 

YELLOW.  Put  a  tablespoonf  ul  of  the  best  turmeric  into  a  quart 
of  boiling  water ,  when  well  mixed,  put  in  the  feathers.  More  or 
less  turmeric  gives  different  shades. 

FOR  ORANGE,  add  a  small  quantity  of  soda  to  the  preparation 
for  yellow. 

PINK.  Three  good  pink  saucers  to  a  quart  of  boiling  water, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  cream  tartar.  If  a  deep  color  is  required 
use  four  saucers.  Let  the  feathers  remain  in  this  dye  several 
hours. 

RED.  Dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of  cream  tartar  in  a  quart  of 
boiling  water ;  put  in  one  tea-spoonful  of  prepared  cochineal,  and 
then  a  few  drops  of  muriate  of  tin.  This  dye  is  expensive,  there- 
fore use  the  plumage  of  the  bird  ibis. 

LILAC.  About  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cudbear  in  a  quart  of  boil- 
ing water ,  let  it  simmer  a  few  minutes  before  you  put  in  the 
feathers.  A  small  quantity  of  cream  tartar  turns  the  color  from 
lilac  to  amethyst. 

Bunches  of  orange  blossoms  can  be  made  with  good  success  of 
feathers ;  the  buds  are  to  be  made  of  starch  and  gum  mixed ; 
the  stamens  of  ground  rice,  colored  with  turmeric,  into  which  the 
gummed  ends  of  manilla  grass  have  been  dipped. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  Islands  make  beautiful  feather 
flowers,  rivaling  the  natural  ones  in  delicacy  and  beauty.  Pinks, 
orange  blossoms,  and  roses  of  exquisite  workmanship  are  often 
brought  from  these  islands.  Old  ostrich  feathers  can  be  made 
to  look  <is  well  as  new  by  holding  over  hot  steam,  then  drawing 
each  vane  of  the  feather  separately  over  a  knife  to  curl  it. 


LTT  CS  rp 
U  fca   J., 


RONZEHPAINTING 


REPABE  your  board  for  bronzing  by  first  coating  it 
over  with  a  strong  solution  of  size,  made  by  dissolving 
isinglass  in  hot  water ;  strain  it,  and  coat  over  with 
a  flat  camel's  hair  brush  while  the  size  is  warm. 
When  dry,  coat  it  over  thinly  and  evenly  with  gold  size ;  let  it 
remain  until  sticky,  then  apply  the  powder  bronze,  with  a  soft 
dry  brush.  You  may  use  a  variety  of  shades  of  bronze  if  you 
wish ;  pale,  blush  and  white.  Blend  them  together  to  suit  your 
subject,  and  allow  two  days  for  it  to  dry  before  commencing  to 
paint.  Make  a  drawing  of  your  figure  on  thin  white  paper,  rub 
some  white  on  the  back  of  it,  fit  it  upon  the  picture  and  mark 
over  with  the  sharp  end  of  a  stick,  pressing  on  very  lightly ;  after 
all  is  drawn  in,  remove  the  sketch,  and  mark  over  the  outlines 
with  a  lead  pencil,  lightly.  If  you  are  copying  from  an  engrav- 
ing, notice  on  which  part  of  the  building  the  light  rests,  and 
select  those  parts  for  gold,  coating  them  over  with  gold  size,  and 
putting  on  the  leaf  gold  when  sufficiently  dry.  If  there  are  any 
parts  of  your  figure  which  you  want  rich  colors,  do  them  with 
gold  at  the  same  time. 


BEONZE  PAINTING.  165 

The  painting  must  now  be  wiped  with  a  silk  handkerchief,  to 
remove  all  the  particles  of  gold  and  dust,  and  supposing  the 
thimble  palette  ready,  with  all  the  colors,  first  mix  a  pale 
tint  of  purple,  made  with  Prussian  blue  and  a  little  crimson 
lake,  and  pencil  over  the  mountains  of  the  landscape  evenly,  then 
go  over  the  water  with  a  very  pale  shade  of  blue.  After  coating 
the  mountains  and  water  once,  it  is  best  not  to  touch  them  again 
until  dry.  Now  paint  in  the  foliage,  making  the  tints  with  yel- 
low lake  and  Prussian  blue ;  if  you  want  them  bright  for  the 
different  shades,  add  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke  brown,  or  both, 
as  your  tints  require. 

Stems  of  trees  are  mostly  done  with  Vandyke  brown,  and  other 
tints  added  to  suit ;  faces  of  figures  do  with  white  and  a  little 
sienna,  mixed  together;  white  drapery  coat  over  with  white, 
scarlet  with  scarlet,  and  yellow  with  chrome  yellow ;  all  other 
parts  of  the  figures  with  white,  except  the  parts  you  have  already 
gilded.  This  will  answer  for  the  first  painting. 

The  second  shade  upon  the  mountain  is  made  with  a  neutral, 
composed  of  three  primative  colors,  crimson  lake,  yellow  lake, 
and  Prussian  blue.  The  tone  you  desire  must  predominate  in 
making  all  your  neutrals.  If  you  want  a  greenish  neutral,  the  yel- 
low lake  must  predominate ,  if  you  wish  a  bluish  neutral,  the  blue 
must  predominate,  and  if  reddish  neutral,  the  crimson  lake  must 
predominate.  Having  selected  your  i-'hade,  be  sure  to  have  it  about 
the  right  strength  before  beginning,  as  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  a 
patched  appearance  on  the  mountains  with  varnish  color,  espe- 
cially on  the  second  and  third  coating,  unless  you  are  quick  in 
your  work.  If  the  water  requires  more  color,  paint  it  in  the 
darker  places,  then  repeat  the  shades  on  the  foliage,  where  it  is 
required. 

Your  figures  now  claim  some  attention.  Any  part  you  wish  to 
have  crimson,  paint  over  with  crimson  lake,  repeat  it  when  a  lit- 
tle dry  if  you  wish  it  darker,  and  for  the  shades  add  a  little  blue 
with  your  crimson  lake.  Blue  dresses  paint  with  a  pale  shade 
of  Prussian  blue  on  white  or  pale  gold  ,  for  the  shades,  paint  in 


166  BRON/r.    PAINTING. 

with  a  little  stronger  Prussian  blue,  and  when  you  wish  to  make 
any  of  these  colors  paler  add  varnish,  and  when  you  want  to 
thin  it  use  turpentine.  Green  dress,  with  yellow  lake  and  Prus- 
sian blue  on  pale  gold  or  white  ;  purple  dresses,  with  crimson 
lake  and.  a  little  Prussian  blue,  on  white  or  pale  gold.  Any  part 
of  the  figure  you  do  with  scarlet,  shade  it  with  crimson  lake ; 
yellow,  shade  with  burnt  sienna,  (pale  shade).  In  faces,  paint 
features  in  with  Vandyke  brown,  and  different  tints  with  yellow 
lake,  crimson  lake,  and  sienna  paled  down,  and  repeat  to  suit 
the  eye. 

Parts  of  mountains  may  require  a  third  and  fourth  wash,  if 
so,  do  it  with  neutrals  mentioned  above.  Sometimes  we  heighten 
the  effects  of  the  near  foliage  by  touching  the  edges  with  a  little 
opaque  color,  made  of  chrome  yellow,  white,  and  a  little  blue. 
It  must  be  done  very  carefully,  as  opaque  colors  are  powerful, 
compared  with  transparent  ones.  If  what  you  do  shows  too 
abruptly,  you  have  a  remedy  by  putting  on  a  little  more  of  the 
Irani-parent  color.  Parts  of  the  figures  may  be  heightened  by 
touches  of  opaque  color,  and  the  faces  also  may  require  retouch- 
ing. When  the  painting  is  completed,  a  full  week  should  pass 
before  varnishing,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  touch 
the  bronze,  as  it  will  leave  a  stain,  bronze  being  so  delicate. 

Varnishing.  In  varnishing,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  a 
clean  brush,  and  the  dust  wiped  from  the  painting  with  a  silk 
handkerchief.  Lay  the  painting  flat,  and  with  a  one  inch  camel 
hair  brush  coat  over  with  copal  varnish,  as  evenly  as  possible, 
being  caref.il  to  cover  every  part.  Leave  it  flat  down,  as  it  is, 
for  a  couple  of  hours,  or  more,  before  removing,  or  the  varnish 
is  liable  to  run  in  streaks.  Once  varnishing  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
serve the  painting,  but  if  you  wisli  to  polish  it,  another  coat  of 
varnish  must  be  given,  allowing  a  week  between ;  then  after 
another  week,  it  should  be  rubbed  with  pumice  sand  and  water, 
In  the  following  manner  •  Take  a  piece  of  woolen,  put  it  over 
cotton,  to  oake  a  rubber  of  it;  wet  the  rubber  pretty  thoroughly 


BRONZE   PAINTING.  167 

Kith  water,  dip  into  some  fine  pumice  sand,  and  rub  it  back- 
wards and  forwards  on  your  varnished  picture,  carefully.  After 
you  have  rubbed  for  a  short  tune,  wipe  the  sand  from  a  part  of 
it,  to  see  the  progress.  If  not  sufficiently  smooth,  rub  again,  care 
being  taken  iiot  to  rub  through  the  varnish.  When  smooth, 
wash  all  the  sand  off,  wipe  perfectly  dry,  and  give  another  coat 
of  varnish,  allowing  the  same  time  for  it  to  dry,  then  rub  again 
with  water  and  pumice  sand.  When  smooth,  wash  off  the  sand 
and  proceed  to  polish  with  very  fine  powdered  rottenstoue,  and 
rubber  made  of  satin  or  silk.  Saturate  this  with  water,  and  rub 
with  the  rotteustone  for  a  short  time,  until  it  shines,  then  wash 
all  off.  You  can  make  it  shine  by  rubbing  with  your  hand,  using 
a  little  sweet  oil  and  a  little  more  rottenstone. 

When  wood  is  used  for  painting  on,  choose  that  which  is  close 
grained,  and  coat  over  several  times  Arith  paint,  rubbing  down 
with  pumice  sand  and  water.  After  the  third  coat,  give  plenty 
of  time  between  eacli  coat  to -get  dry  and  hard. 


GILDING. 

The  part  you  wish  to  have  leaf  gold,  cover  evenly  with  gold  size. 
Chrome  yellow  or  white  lead  may  be  mixed  in  with  the  gold  size 
to  enable  you  to  see  the  process.  Allow  it  to  dry  until  a  little 
sticky.  It  can  remain  much  longer  than  for  bronzing,  as  leaf 
gold  does  not  require  so  strong  a  sticking  property  as  bronze. 
When  sufficiently  dry,  put  on  the  gold  by  means  of  the  tip,  or 
your  fingers,  from  the  gold  book.  Be  careful  to  cover  every  part 
of  the  gold  size  with  smooth  leaf-gold.  When  all  covered,  press 
gently  a  piece  of  soft  chamois  skw,  on  all  the  gilded  parts,  and 
remove  the  superfluous  gold, 


JAPANESE  ART, 


[$  elegant,  easy  and  profitable  method  of  arranging 
autumn  leaves  to  make  beautiful  household  articles, 
such  as  flower  vases,  work  boxes,  etc.    Gather  yellow 
withered  leaves,  perfect  in  form,  press ,  them  between  the 
leaves  of  a  book.    Hub  the  surface  of  the  article  to  be  or- 
namented with  fine  sand-paper,  then  give  it  a  coat  of  fine 
black  paint.    When  this  is  dry,  rub  smooth  with  pumice 
stone,  then  apply  two  other  coats.    Arrange  the  leaves  according 
to  taste,  gum  them  on  the  under  side,  and  press  them  on  the 
piece  to  be  ornamented. 

Now  dissolve  some  isinglass  in  hot  water,  and  brush  it  over  the 
work  while  the  solution  is  warm.  When  dry,  give  it  three  coats 
of  copal  varnish,  allowing  time  for  each  coat  to  dry,  and  the 
•work  is  completed. 


THE  ART  OF  PAINTING 


STAINING  GLASS,  ft 


k  LASS-PAINTING  is  not  only  restored,  in 
our  day,  to  the  perfect  fullness  of  its 
ancient  splendor,  but  also  has  acquired, 
.  through  the  giant  strides  of  the  science 
of  chemistry,  and  the  great  progress  lat- 
terly made  in  the  arts  of  design,   an 
amount  of  technical  and  aesthetical  power 
far  exceeding  whatever  could  formerly  be  called  to 
its  aid. 

Notwithstanding  this  advantage,  however,  the  art 
has  not  yet  reached  that  wide  state  of  diffusion  which, 
from  the  exquisite  effedte  it  is  capable  of  producing, 
and  deserves,  and  which  it  attained  in  the  olden  time,  even  with 
its  then  more  limited  capabilities. 


170  STAINING  GLASS. 

The  obstacles  which,  on  the  revival  of  the  art,  have  interposed 
to  check  its  further  extension,  and  therefore  to  diminish  also  the 
general  demand  for  its  productions,  are  much  rather  to  be  at- 
tributed to  those  in  whose  hands  it  rests,  than  to  anything  prop- 
erly belonging  to  itself ;  they  originate  in  fact  less  in  the  art 
than  with  the  artists. 

One  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  earlier  decay  of  glass-paint- 
ing was  that  its  rules  being  based  so  entirely  upon  empirical 
principles,  those  who  practised  it  were  accustomed  to  consider 
the  knowledge  they  had  acquired  in  the  thorny  path  of  tedious 
and  long  continued  experiment  as  their  most  valuable  personal 
property,  forming  at  once  the  means  of  their  subsistence,  and  the 
foundation  of  their  future  artistical  fame.  They  therefore  not 
only  kept  the  information  they  had  gained  profoundly  secret 
during  their  lives,  but  even  carried  it  with  them  to  their  graves, 
in  preference  to  leaving  it  behind  them  to  be  made  use  of  by 
their  scholars. 

Glass-painting  or  staining  may  be  defined  to  mean  the  art  of 
painting  on  transparent  glass,  (either  colorless  or  already  colored 
in  the  process  of  its  manufacture),  with  vitrescible  metallic  col- 
ors, which  are  afterwards  burnt  into  the  surface  of  the  glass  on 
which  they  are  laid,  leaving  it  more  or  less  transparent. 

All  colors  used  in  glass-painting  are  oxides  of  metals,  or  other 
metallic  combinations,  They  may  be  divided  into  two  principal 
classes : 

1.  Those  whose  coloring  base,  or  the  oxide,  is  laid  upon  the 
glass  simply  in  its  original  combination  with  an  earthy  vehicle. 

2,  Those  whose  coloring  base,  or  the  oxide,  must  be  made  to 
adhere  by  the  help  of  a  glassy  body,  namely,  the  flux. 

The  colors  which  require  a  flux  may  be  divided  again  into, 

1.  Those  in  which  the  oxide  unchanged,  but  only  mixed  with 
the  flux,  is  attached  to  the  glass. 

2.  Those  in  which  the  oxide  requires  to  be  vitrified,  by  previ- 
ous fusion  with  the  flux,  before  it  is  laid  on  the  glass. 

The  last  may  be  called  fused  colors,  all  others  mixed  colors. 


STAINING  GLASS.  171 

The  classification  before  given  maybe  made  clearer  by  the  fol- 
lowing explanatory  remarks.  Glass-painting  is  distinguished 
especially  from  other  illuminating  processes  in  that  the  colors 
and  the  foundation  on  •which  they  are  laid  must,  in  this  art,  be 
fused  together  in  the  kiln. 

Now,  some  few  colors  combine  with  the  surface  of  the  glass, 
at  the  temperature  of  fusion,  without  further  previous  prepara- 
tion than  the  simple  laying  on,  wherefore  these  give  to  the  glass 
only  a  coloring  cementation  or  stain.  Others,  011  the  contrary, 
in  consequence  of  their  peculiar  nature,  can  only  be  made  to  com- 
bine with  the  glass  by  fusing  them  upon  its  surface,  into  another 
thin  sheet  or  layer  of  colored  glass.  This  is  done  by  means  of 
the  flux,  a  vitreous  compound,  which  fuses  more  easily  (i.  e.  at  a 
lower  temperature)  than  the  foundation,  the  glass  plate. 

The  Process  of  Laying  the  Colors  on  the  Glass.     The 

manipulation  and  the  process  of  laying  the  colors  on  the  glass 
varies,  in  some  measure,  according  to  the  different  kinds  of  glass- 
painting,  which  therefore  call  for  the  first  explanation. 

Either  the  colors  may  be  laid  upon  a  single  sheet  of  glass,  upon 
which  the  whole  figure  with  all  its  principal  colors  and  interme- 
diate tints  are  burned  in  (Peinture  en  appret) :  or,  • 

The  figure  may  be  composed  of  various  pieces  of  pot  metal 
(glass  already  colored  in  its  manufacture),  and  only  the  outlines 
and  shadows  painted  on,  the  glass  pieces  giving  the  colors  for  the 
peculiar  places  where  they  are  inserted  (Mosaic  glass-painting) ; 
or,  both  these  methods  may  be  combined  in  one  and  the  same 
picture,  by  composing  it  partly  of  pieces  of  colored  pot  metal  and 
partly  of  white  and  painted  glass,  fixed  together, 

A 

Peinture  et  Appret.  For  painting  on  a  single  sheet  of 
glass,  the  following  rales  must  be  observed. 

A  pure  white  glass  must  be  chosen  for  the  purpose,  free  from 
air  specks  or  bubbles,  and  especially  difficult  of  fusion,  as  the 
whole  labor  would  be  lost  if  it  were  attempted  to  burn  in  the 


172  STAINING   GLASS. 

colors  upon  a  ground  which  fused  as  easily  us  themselves.  It  is 
practicable,  as  the  examples  of  the  ancients  show,  to  paint  on 
what  would  appear  the  commonest  glass  with  a  good  result,  pro- 
vided that  it  does  not  contain  too  much  lead,  and  thereby  be- 
come too  easily  fusible. 

Before  the  operation  of  painting,  the  glass  plate  must  be  rub- 
bed to  a  sufficient  extent  with  pure  lime,  slaked  by  exposure  to 
the  air,  in  order  to  clean  it  perfectly. 

The  ground  or  foundation  must  then  be  laid  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  plate,  which  may  be  done  in  two  different  ways. 
Some  artists  simply  dip  a  piece  of  clean  linen  cloth,  or  a  Hat 
camel-hair  pencil,  in  oil  of  turpentine,  and  brush  the  pane  of 
glass  with  it  equally  over  its  surface ,  while  others  give  to  the 
whole  a  thin  clear  ground  of  black  glass-painting  color,  in  such 
manner  as  not  to  destroy  its  transparency,  but  at  most  to  give  it 
the  form  of  a  dead  ground  glass.  Both  methods  answer  the 
purpose  of  covering  the  glass  with  a  viscous  surface,  which  takes 
the  design  and  the  colors  better  than  a  polished  ground ;  the 
latter  prepares  the  glass  at  the  same  time  for  the  painting  effects 
which  are  to  be  obtained  upon  it. 

In  both  cases  the  ground  which  has  been  laid  on  must  be  most 
carefully  leveled  over,  and  brought  to  as  thin  a  coat  as  possible 
with  a  large  hair  pencil,  and  must  be  driod  quickly,  taking  great 
care  to  preserve  it  from  dust,  etc. 

Tainting  on  one  sheet  requires  only  one  pattern  drawing  or 
cartoon,  which,  however,  may  be  used  in  two  ways.  Either  the 
glass  sheet,  grounded  and  dried  as  above  directed,  may  be  laid 
upon  tlie  drawing,  and  the  outlines,  as  seen  through  the  glass, 
traced  lightly  with  a  fine  pencil,  and  with  black  or  other  glass 
color  corresponding  to  the  ground.  Or  the  drawing  may  be 
placed  reversed  on  the  sheet,  and  all  the  outlines  marked  ovi-r 
with  a  steel  or  ivory  style.  If  this  latter  method  is  used  upon  a 
ground  of  simple  turpentine,  the  back  of  the  drawing  must  pre- 
viously be  rubbed  over  with  black  lead,  so  that  the  traced  lines 
may  appear  dark  on  the  light  ground. 


STAINIXG  GLASS.  173 

In  both  cases,  the  drawing,  whether  it  is  placed  upon  or  under 
the  glass,  must,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  be  fastened  to  it 
with  pieces  of  wax  at  the  four  corners. 

For  properly  carrying  out  the  process  of  laying  on  the  colors, 
a  desk  or  easel  is  necessary,  which  should-  be  capable  of  being 
placed  in  an  inclined  position  by  means  of  props,  and  should  be 
formed  by  fixing  a  glass  plate  in  a  wooden  frame,  so  that  the 
light  may  pass  through  the  painting.  Sometimes  during  the 
progress  of  the  work,  the  glass  which  is  being  painted  may  be 
removed  from  the  easel  and  laid  upon  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  in 
order  better  to  show  the  effect  of  certain  colors. 

The  vehicle  with  which  the  pigments  are  laid  on  is  generally 
oil.  Some  artists  use  exclusively  water,  but  this  alone  is  an  iii- 
Bufficient  medium  for  binding  the  metallic  bodies  to  the  glass, 
particularly  if,  as  in  the  case  of  fused  colors,  they  are  somewhat 
coarse  in  their  nature,  and  require  to  be  laid  on  in  thick  layers. 
They  then  easily  loosen  from  the  plate  before  the  firing,  and 
render  the  process  of  laying  on  much  more  difficult.  It  is  au 
important  advantage,  that  with  oil  the  edges  are  more  sharply 
defined,  and  the  parts  already  painted  may  be  again  touched  over 
when  dry  without  danger  of  loosening  the  ground. 

It  must  be  understood  that  when  it  is  wished  to  make  use  of 
water,  the  plate  must  either  not  be  grounded  at  all,  or  only  with 
a  glass-painting  color  worked  up  with  water. 

The  most  suitable  kind  of  oil  for  the  purpose  is  rectified  oil  of 
turpentine,  somewhat  thickened  by  standing,  and  to  which  a  little 
oil  of  lavender  is  added.  This  preparation  gives  the  mass  the 
necessary  degree  of  viscosity,  and  also  prevents  the  color  on  the 
palette  from  drying  up  and  thickening  too  quickly. 

The  palette  should  be  of  thick  sheet  glass,  ground  rough  by 
rubbing  with  a  glass  muller  and  fine  sand. 

Preparatory  to  mixing  with  oil  for  laying  on,  those  colors 
which  require  a  flux  must  (unless  a  different  process  is  specially 
indicated)  be  ground  fine  in  water  with  the  flux,  and  again  dried. 
But  the  fused  colors,  i.  e.  those  in  which  the  oxide  has  already 


174  STAINING  GLASS. 

been  vitrified  with  the  flux  into  the  state  of  a  transparent  glass, 
should  for  the  purpose  of  laying  on,  only  be  coarsely  granulated  ; 
for  the  finer  these  are  ground  the  more  likely  is  their  transpar- 
ency and  perfection  to  be  impaired  when  burnt  in. 

Those  pigments  which  are  laid  on  in  their  simple  combination 
with  an  earthy  vehicle,  and  without  flux,  as  for  example  the  yel- 
low and  red  colors  prepared  from  silver,  form  an  absolute  excep- 
tion to  the  use  of  oil,  and  must,  for  laying  on,  be  stirred  up  with 
Water  to  the  consistency  of  a  thick  cream. 

The  first  of  these  three  kinds  of  pigments  should,  as  a  general 
rule,  be  laid  on  in  a  thin,  the  latter  two  in  a  pasty,  state.  The 
depth  of  tone  of  the  color  depends,  with  all  three,  upon  the  de- 
gree of  thickness  in  which  the  pigments  are  laid  upon  the  glass. 

The  laying  on  of  the  fused  colors  is  accompanied  with  more 
difficulty  than  that  of  the  other  kinds.  The  latter  are  simply 
laid  on  with  the  pencil,  in  the  same  manner  as  with  other  kinds 
of  painting,  and  the  only  care  necessary  is  that  the  coat  may  be 
perfectly  even  and  regular,  therefore  for  large  surfaces  a  wide 
smooth  pencil  or  driver  is  usually  employed.  The  colors  pre- 
pared from  silver  must  be  treated  differently,  and  laid  on  the 
glass  at  least  to  the  thickness  of  the  back  of  a  knife. 

But  the  fused  colors  must  be  brought  upon  the  surfaces  to  be 
covered  in  the  state  of  a  thick  flowing  mass,  moist  enough  to  run, 
but  consistent  enough  to  lie  upon  the  glass.  For  this  purpose 
small  portions  must  be  laid  on  and  spread  out  with  a  pencil  or 
small  spoon,  and  made  to  flow  to  the  circumscribing  outlines,  by 
inclining  the  sheet  in  the  proper  directions.  If  any  part  of  the 
surface  thus  covered  is  required  to  take  a  darker  tone  of  color, 
the  plate  must  be  kept  for  some  time  at  an  inclination  in  the 
corresponding  direction,  so  that  the  color  may  thus  accumulate 
thicker  on  that  part.  By  this  process  many  gradations  of  tone 
may  be  obtained  from  one  and  the  same  pigment. 

The  remaining  rules  for  the  laying  on  of  the  pigments  are 
those  which  principally  result  from  the  different  methods  of 
painting  on  one  sheet,  of  which  there  are  principally  three. 


STAINING  GLASS.  175 

Either  the  whole  picture  may  be  brought  out  in  its  outlines 
and  shadows,  on  one  side  of  the  sheet,  with  black,  bro\vn  or  gray 
color,  and  illuminated  with  the  proper  colors  in  the  proper  places 
on  the  other  side. 

Or  simply  the  manner  of  ordinary  oil  painting  may  be  adopted 
with  the  glass  colors,  and  the  picture  treated  as  by  an  artist  in 
oil. 

Or,  as  is  now  most  customary,  both  methods  may  be  united? 
the  artist  making  use  of  each  in  certain  places,  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  object  he  has  in  view. 

For  these  three  methods  the  following  common  rules  will 
serve. 

The  shadows  and  dark  colored  outlines,  and  that  which  is  cal- 
led in  oil  'under  painting,'  should  be  drawn  on  the  front  side  of 
the  glass,  or  that  which  is  turned  towards  the  spectator. 

The  illuminating  colors,  especially  the  principal  ones,  should 
be  laid  on  the  back  or  reversed  side. 

Intermediate  tints,  and  gradations  by  shading,  should  gener- 
ally be  placed  on  the  front  side,  but  sometimes,  when  they  alter- 
nate with  each  other,  necessarily  must  lie  on  both  •,  as  they  cannot 
be  put  in  contact  on  one  and  the  same  side  without  danger  of 
running  into  each  other,  and  making  a  false  color. 

The  silver  yellow  and  red  colors,  before  alluded  to,  must  always 
be  placed  on  the  back  or  reversed  side. 

In  some  particular  cases  colors  may  be  laid  on  corresponding 
places  on  both  sides  of  the  glass,  in  order  to  produce  certain  ef- 
fects by  the  light  falling  through  the  two  together.  Thus,  pur- 
ple on  one  side  and  gold  yellow  on  the  other,  give  a  magnificent 
fiery  scarlet ;  blue  and  yellow,  according  to  their-  respective  in- 
tensities, give  different  shades  of  green  ;  the  latter,  again,  with 
blue  on  the  opposite  side,  serve  for  excellent  distance  colors.  And 
finally,  by  the  mixture  of  several  colors,  the  most  diversified  in- 
termediate tints  may  be  obtained,  so  that  glass -painting  in  its 
present  state  may  be  brought  to  assimilate  with  oil  painting  in 
its  power  of  producing  varied  effects. 


176  STAINING  GLASS. 

Iii  order  to  put  a  new  tone  of  color  on  a  surf  ace  already  marked 
with  outlines,  etc.,  it  must  first  be  dried  by  a  gentle  and  equal 
heat,  (to  avoid  the  warping  of  the  glass),  and  again  painted  im- 
mediately after  it  has  cooled.  Or  -the  black  lines  first  laid  on 
may  be  at  once  burnt  in,  and  where  possible,  with  these  any  yel- 
low shades  also  which  may  be  required,  after  which  the  painting, 
then  fixed,  may  be  further  worked  upon  without  danger  of  dam- 
age. The  residuum  of  the  unfluxcd  yellow  color  may  be  removed 
after  burning,  and  again  used.  This  color,  must  never  be  put 
over  any  other,  nor  over  dark  shadows,  unless  these  are  previ- 
ously burnt  in,  but  always  require  a  carefully  cleaned  surface  of 
glass  to  lie  upon ;  otherwise  it  would  combine  with  the  flux  of 
the  under  color,  whereby  the  earthy  residuum  would  be  fixed, 
and  the  transparency  and  beauty  of  the  whole  destroyed. 

All  pigments  must  be  laid  on  somewhat  darker  than  in  other 
kinds  of  painting,  as  they  lose  in  depth  by  burning. 

When  a  pigment  has  overrun  itj>,  outline,  the  superfluous  quan- 
tity must  be  removed,  when  dry,  with  a  knife. 

By  taking  away  the  ground  with  a  style  of  fine  grained  wood, 
pointed  in  front  and  smooth  at  the  back,  (a  tool  used  in  etch- 
ing), the  most  effective  lights  may  be  obtained. 

Should  the  colors  not  appear  quite  dull  and  dry,  but  shining 
and  greasy,  after  the  drying  of  the  picture,  this  is  caused  by  the 
misuse  of  the  oil,  which  is  always  dangerous  to  the  beauty  of  the 
pigments  in  firing. 

It  is  neither  necessary  nor  advisable  to  allow  more  than  one 
day  for  the  drying  of  the  colors ;  the  burning  in  should  be  pro- 
ceeded with  at  the  expiration  of  the  time  named. 

Lastly,  during  the  work,  the  greatest  cleanliness  must  be  ob- 
served throughout,  the  pencil  and  palette  must  be  kept  perfectly 
clean,  and  the  painting  preserved  from  dust,  etc.,  for  which 
reason  it  is  not  advisable  to  paint  in  a  laboratory  or  melting 
room,  where  the  presence  of  vapor,  dust,  and  impurities  of  many 
kinds  cannot  be  avoided. 


STAINING  GLASS.  I1}"? 

Mosaic  Glass- Painting.  The  before  mentioned  rules  for 
laying  on  the  colors  will  apply  also  to  the  method  of  forming  de- 
signs with  colored  pieces  of  pot  metal,  or  partly  with  these  and 
partly  with  painted  white  glass.  It  remains  to  say  something 
more  in  reference  to  the  employment  of  the  cartoons,  and  the 
cutting  and  arrangement  of  the  glasses  in  this  branch  of  the  art, 
whl:'i,  however,  is  but  little  practiced,  since  the  leaden  bars  in  a 
picture  calculated  for  a  near  view  are  detrimental  to  the  eiiect. 

Mosaic  glass-painting  requires  two  cartoons.  One  of  these,  a 
finished  and  colored  one,  is  used  by  the  artist  as  a  pattern,  and 
serves  to  determine  the  arrangement  of  the  piece  of  glass  accord- 
ing to  their  several  colors,  and  the  manner  of  introducing  the 


leaden  ribs  to  fasten  them  together,  according  to  the  outlines  of 
figures.  Each  piece  of  glass  proposed  to  make  part  of  the  pic- 
ture, must  be  distinguished  by  a  separate  number. 

The  other  cartoon,  which  consists  only  of  the  black  outlines  of 
the  lead  jointing,  and  whose  several  parts  are  numbered  to  cor- 
respond with  the  first,  is  to  be  cut  up  in  pieces  according  to  the 
outlines,  and  the  size  of  each  piece  diminished  all  round  by  one- 
half  the  thickness  of  the  lead  bar  of  the  jointing,  so  that  the 
pieces  of  glass  may  be  exactly  cut  to  the  proper  dimensions. 

The  cutting  of  the  glass  may  either  be  done  by  the  diamond, 
or  by  tracing  the  line  of  division  with  a  red-hot  iron,  after  having 
made  a  small  incision  at  its  commencement,  or  by  cutting  with 
scissors  under  water,  which,  however,  is  not  a  safe  process. 


178 


STAINING  GLASS. 


With  overlaid  glass,  i.  e.  pot  metal,  several  sheets  or  layers 
laid  upon  each  other  from  the  frit,  as  for  example,  red  and 
white,  hlue  and  white,  etc.,  it  is  possible  to  produce  many  effects 
of  shading  by  removing  more  or  less  of  the  colored  glass  sheet, 
according  to  the  outline,  by  grinding  with  emery.  Or  the  col- 
ored sheet  may  be  ground  through  to  the  white  glass,  and  thus 
colored  ornaments  may  be  given  on  white  ground,  especially  for 
the  representation  of  damasked  materials.  Also,  the  white  parts 
thus  exposed  may  have  a  color  given  them  at  pleasure  on  the  op- 
posite side,  in  order  to  produce  many  kinds  of  effects,  or  to  avoid 
the  necessity  of  using  many  pieces  when  the  introduction  of 
another  color  in  that  of  the  pot  metal  is  indispensable  for  the 
effect  required. 

The  colored  pot  metal  may  be  painted  with  intermediate  tints 
of  its  own  principal  color,  or  even  in  order  to  produce  certain 
effects,  may  be  covered  on  one  of  its  surfaces  with  another  color. 
Thus,  a  fiery  red  may  be  obtained  by  covering  a  red  overlaid  glass 
on  its  white  surface  with  the  yellow  silver  color,  and  burning  ifc 
in,  or  a  shade  of  green  by  a  similar  use  of  the  same  pigment  on 
a  blue  overlaid  glass.  In  these  operations  the  widest  latitude  is 
left  to  the  talent  and  practice  of  the  artist. 


GILDING  THE  BORDERS  OF  GLASS, 


IN  TRANSPARENCY,  ANTIQUE, 


AND    DTHER   GLASS    FAINTING-, 


HE  present  art  of  gilding  upon  glass  is 
an  improvement  on  the  method  in  fashion 
years  ago.     It  is  chiefly  used  for  decor- 
ating the  borders  of  prints  in  executing 
show  glasses,  and  inscriptions  for  various 
purposes,  also  for  ornamental  decorations 
in  a  variety  of  elegant  forms,  upon  dif- 
ferent colored  grounds ;  but  as  black  is  the 
most  general  one  in  demand,  shall  first  treat  011 
that,  there  being  two  ways  of  performing  it. 

Procure  some  fine  isinglass.  You  will  find 
white  and  transparent  is  the  best,  otherwise 
it  will  be  unfit  for  this  purpose.  Dissolve 
it  in  very  clean  water,  and  strain  through  linen 
cloth.  Put  a  piece  the  size  of  a  pea  into  a  tea 
cup  of  luke  warm  water,  and  let  it  remain  un- 
til dissolved.  Make  the  glass  you  wish  to  have 
gilded  quite  clean,  and  free  it  of  any  dust  or  grease,  get  some 
leaf  gold,  put  it  on  a  gilding  cushion,  and  cut  into  pieces  accord- 
ing to  the  breadth  you  wish  to  have  your  work  gilt.  Go  over  the 


180  GILDING  THE   BORDERS  OF  GLASS. 

parts  to  be  gilb  with  a  hair  pencil,  dipped  in  the  thin  isinglass 
water,  and  while  moist  lay  on  the  leaf  gold,  piece  by  piece,  until 
the  parts  are  covered.  The  leaf  will  instantly  adhere  to  the  glass. 
Then  place  it  near  the  lire,  in  a  slanting  position,  until  it  dries, 
which  will  be  in  a  few  minutes. 

While  it  is  slightly  warm,  take  a  piece  of  cotton  or  wool  and 
rub  the  gold  to  the  glass,  until  you  find  the  superfluous  pieces  of 
leaf  gold  gone,  and  likewise  the  back  of  the  part  gilt  receives 
a  kind  of  polish.  Proceed  to  lay  on  a  second  coat  of  gold,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  first,  drying  it  as  before,  and  polishing  it, 
and  so  a  third  coat,  which  will  be  sufficient. 

Then  take  the  size  of  tho  print  or  drawing  which  is  to  be 
framed,  and  laying  it  on  the  gilt  part  of  the  glass,  7iiark  where 
the  edges  come  to,  with  a  hair  pencil  and  .some  dark  color,  after 
which,  being  provided  with  a  long  ruler,  and  a  pointed  piece  of 
ivory,  draw  two  parallel  lines  out  of  your  gold,  and  with  a  ma- 
hogany or  deal  stick,  carefully  pointed,  work  away  the  superfluous 
part,  leaving  the  gold  fillet  which  is  to  encompass  the  picture 
sharp  and  neat.  If  you  wish  to  ornament  it  by  any  other  lines, 
to  appear  black  in  the  center,  lay  on  your  ruler,  and  with  the 
ivory  point  scribe  them,  and  then  varnish,  having  some  black 
Japan,  to  which  a  little  lampblack  has  been  added,  to  deepen  the 
color.  Paint  it  all  over  the  gilt  part  of  the  glass,  and  the  space 
between  it  and  the  edge,  then  set  it  to  dry,  which  takes  a  few 
hours.  When  you  are  to  lay  out  the  breadth  of  the  black  line 
that  is  to  be  inside  your  gilding,  scribe  it  with  a  sharp  point,  and 
cut  away  the  waste  black  with  a  graver,  or  some  sharp  instru- 
ment. 

To  cut  figures,  or  any  kind  of  ornament  out  of  your  gold,  after 
the  glass  is  gilt,  have  a  drawing  of  the  design  on  paper,  at  the 
back  of  which  rub  some  powdered  red  chalk,  and  the  smallest 
quantity  of  fresh  butter ;  lay  the  paper  on  the  g»ld.  and  with  a 
bluntish  ivory  point  go  over  the  lines  of  the  drawing,  and  they 
will  be  nicely  transferred  on  the  gold,  when  you  can  with  an 
ivory  point  trace  them  out  •  i.  and  shade  (hem  agrees- 


GILDING   THE   BORDERS  OF  GLASS.  181 

ble  to  your  fancy,  or  from  the  drawing  you  have  by  you.  You 
may,  by  mixing  any  other  color  you  choose  with  white  copal 
varnish,  vary  your  ground  as  you  think  proper. 

The  most  important  secret  in  glass  gilding  is  the  following 
method :  In  an  instant  after  your  glass  is  blacked,  taking  away 
the  parts  where  the  gold  is  to  appear,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
black  to  stand  fast,  by  which  means  the  black  gilding  work  is 
done  in  one-half  the  time,  and  with  half  the  gold  Jeaf.  The 
process  is  simple,  and  is  performed  as  f olloArs :  Obtain  the  very 
best  black  Japan  carriage  varnish,  to  which  add  a  very  small 
portion  of  burned  lampblack,  very  finely  ground  in  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine ;  then  with  a  large  flat  varnish  brush  give  the  glass  one 
even  thin  coat,  holding  it  between  you  and  the  light,  and  observ- 
ing that  it  does  not  appear  a  thick  dead  black,  but  exhibits  a 
degree  of  transparency  not  so  much  so  as  to  prevent  its  appear- 
ing a  good  black  at  the  right  side  of  the  glass.  After  this,  have 
the  letters  and  ornaments  drawn  on  paper,  as  before  mentioned, 
and  trace  it  in  the  same  manner  on  the  black  varnish  when  it  is 
perfectly  dry.  The  drawing  will  be  thus  very  finely  transferred 
to  the  black.  Then  take  a  needle  pointed  bodkin  and  finely 
mark  the  outlines  of  what  black  is  to  come  out  through  the  var- 
nish ;  take  some  thick  brown  paper,  dip  it  in  water,  and  squeeze 
it  gently,  spread  it  over  the  parts  of  the  varnish  you  want  to  de- 
tach from  the  glass,  and  in  a  few  minutes,  by  raising  one  edge  of 
the  black,  it  will  instantly  peel  away  clean  from  the  glass.  When 
all  the  black  you  want  is  taken  out,  lay  the  glass  to  the  fire,  and 
the  remaining  part  of  the  varnish  will  instantly  become  as  hard 
as  ever,  and  ready  to  have  the  gold  put  on. 


J~ 


ETCHING  ON  COPPER, 


(OING  this  kind  of  work  upon  copper,  in 
imitation  of  engraving,  at  a  much  less 
expense,  is  something  worthy  the  atten- 
tion of  sketch-artists  and  draughtsmen, 
•who  will  find  it  very  useful  in  getting 
duplicates  of  their  work.  You  first  make 
a  correct  tracing  with  a  black  lead  pencil 
of  the  drawing  which  is  to  be  etched,  then  screw  the  copper 
plate  into  a  small  hand  vice.  It  must  be  understood  that  the 
copper  is  perfectly  free  from  scratches,  or  other  blemishes. 

Warm  the  plate  from  the  back  with  a,  torch,  which  must  be 
kept  moving  over  it  in  all  directions,  until  it  becomes  gradually 
heated.  It  should  be  just  hot  enough  to  allow  your  hand  upon 
it  for  a  second  or  two.  Take  the  etching  ground — which  is  in- 
closed in  a  silk  wrapper — and  rub  it  as  evenly  over  the  surface 
of  the  copper  as  you  can.  Before  the  plate  cools,  take  the  dab- 
bcr  and  dab  over  the  etching  ground  until  it  becomes  perfectly 
ilat,  and  indeed  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  thin  transparent 
wash,  through  which  the  bright  copper  appears.  The  etching 
ground  must  be  equally  spread  over  the  copper,  not  thick  in  one 
part  and  thin  in  another.  Should  the  copper  become  too  cold 
ere  the  dabbing  has  been  finished,  you  may  warm  it  again ;  be 


ETCHING  ON   COPPER.  183 

careful,  however,  not  to  make  it  so  as  it  will  burn  the  etching 
ground — this  would  be  a  great  blunder,  because  it  would  not  then 
resist  the  action  of  the  biting-in  liquid,  which  is  aqua  fortis  of 
different  decrees  of  strength. 

o  ^j 

Now  take  a  wax  torch  and  smoke  the  whole  surface  of  the 
copper  thus  prepared ;  keep  the  torch  at  a  fair  distance  from  the 
copper,  and  move  in  all  directions,  until  the  whole  plate  Ijccomcs 
black  with  the  smoke.  Let  the  plate  cool,  then  slightly  dampen 
the  tracing,  and  lay  the  penciled  side  upon  the  smoked  plate,  and 
run  both  through  a  printing  press.  Upon  removing  the  tracing 
paper,  you  will  find  a  perfect  fac  simile — reversed — of  the  draw- 
ing, transferred  to  the  copper  by  means  of  the  smoke. 

Now  place  the  copper  on  the  table,  which  must  face  the  light, 
and  put  up  between  the  light  and  your  plate  a  shade  of  tissue 
paper,  which  will  cause  every  scratch  you  make  on  the  copper 
apparent.  The  shade  is  simply  a  sheet  of  tissue  paper  stretched 
upon  a  common  wooden  strainer.  Keep  it  constantly  up  during 
your  work.  The  plate  may  Ix;  laid  flat  upon  the  table,  or  in- 
clined a  little,  just  as  you  please. 

Now  get  a  piece  of  thin  mahogany,  or  common  deal,  longer 
than  the  copper,  and  sufficiently  broad  for  your  hand  to  rest 
upon  while  working,  for  the  hand  must  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  plate,  otherwise  the  tracing  would  be  obliterated.  The  rest 
for  the  hand  must  have  two  pieces  of  wood  glued  on  each  end,  so 
as  to  raise  it  off  the  plate  an  inch  or  so ;  or  you  may  place  a 
book  on  each  side  of  the  copper — not  on  it — and  lay  a  flat  piece 
of  wood  across  it,  and  resting  on  the  books ;  all  that  is  required 
being  to  keep  the  hand  off  the  plate  while  etching  in  the  outline. 

Have  a  looking-glass  near,  and  place  the  original  drawing  or 
tracing  before  it,  which  will  thus  be  rendered  just  as  the  reversed 
outline  on  the  copi>er.  Now  take  an  etching  point  and  slightly 
go  over  all  the  outline,  simply  watching  the  copper,  not  digging 
deeply  in  it. 

When  all  the  etching  is  done,  put  a  border  or  wall,  about  an 
inch  high,  all  around  the  plate,  to  contain  the  biting-in  fluid, 


184  ETCHING  ON  COPPER. 

Tho  composition  for  bordering  must  be  warmed,  and  laid  down 
on  the  plate,  taking  care  that  it  adheres  sufficiently,  or  else  the 
fluid  will  escape  and  burn  whatever  it  touches.  The  aqua  fortis 
is  now  to  be  laid  over  all  the  etching,  and  according  to  its 
strength  so  must  its  continuance  be.  It  may  be  kept  in  motion 
with  the  feathered  end  of  a  quill,  and  when  it  bubbles  up,  you 
may  be  sure  it  is  in  active  operation. 

When  the  distances  and  delicate  lines  have  been  etched  in  suf- 
ficiently, pour  off  the  liquid,  wash  the  plate  with  cold  water,  and 
•when  dry,  cover  up  with  the  preparation — made  for  the  purpose 
of  resisting  the  action  of  the  fluid — all  the  parts  which,  accord- 
ing to  your  judgment,  are  sufficiently  bit  in.  Lay  on  the  fluid 
again,  and  rebite  the  next  delicate  part?,  then  pour  off  as  before, 
and  wash  the  plate  with  cold  water.  Stop  out  and  rebito  again, 
and  so  continue  to  do  until  the  wholj  work  is  accomplished. 

The  darkest  parts  of  the  etching  always  require  more  biting-in 
than  the  light  parts.  Clear  off  all  the  etching  ground  from  the 
plate,  and  the  work  is  done. 

Many  ladies  do  this  work  for  amusement,  but  they  give  the 
plate  out  to  be  bitten-in,  as  the  fumes  from  the  aqua  fortis  are 
unhealthy. 

The  materials  for  the  art  of  etching  can  be  obtained  in  any 
village.  There  are  also  professed  biters- in,  who  are  employed  by 
engravers. 

Etching  on  steel  is  done  in  precisely  the  same  manner,  only 
the  biting-in  fluid  is  much  weaker. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Copper.  Mix  two  ounces  aqua  fortis 
with  five  ounces  water.  Another  is  verdigris,  common  salt,  and 
sal  ammoniac,  each  four  ounces,  alum  one  ounce,  (all  in  powder), 
strong  vinegar,  eight  ounces,  water,  one  pound;  dissolve  by 
boiling  for  a  moment ;  cool  and  decant, 


KENSINGTON  PAINTING, 


EKSINGTON  art  work  probably,  at  the  pres- 
time,  is  attracting  more  attention  than 
the  other  methods  of  painting  on  silk  and 
velvet.    Kensington  embroidery  had  its 
day,  and  while  it  has  not  altogether  passed 
out  of  use,  it  ia  nevertheless,  like  many 
other  methods  of  art  needle-work,  being 
improved  upon,  and  for  the  old  method 
of  doing  the  work  with  the  thread,  paint 
is  being  substituted,  which  far  exceeds 
the  more  ancient  work  in  splendor  and 
simplicity.    The  great  progress  lately  made  in 
this  accomplishment,  the  amount  of  mechanical 
and  artistical  power,  far  excels  whatever  else  has 
formerly  been  called  into  use.     Notwithstanding 
all  this,  however,  the  art  bas  not  reached  that 
wide  state  of  perfection  which,  from  the  exquisite 
effects,  it  is  capable  of  producing. 

Kensington  painting,  in  general  appearance, 
resembles  Kensington  embroidery,  and  as  the  lat- 
ter seemed  to  pass  away,  the  former  caught  up  the 
name,  the  idea  being  to  produce  with  paint  and 
brush  upon  cloth,  afac  simile  of  the  raised  work 
of  embroidery,  to  answer  a  demand  of  artists  in. 
oil  for  something  new, 


186  KENSINGTON   PAINTING. 

Materials  Used.  For  doing  the  work  procure  the  follow- 
ing materials :  The  best  probably  for  the  purpose  would  be  a 
brass  pen,  one  that  is  very  elastic ;  a  goose  quill  would  answer 
the  purpose.  Next  is  a  round  piece  of  steel,  or  needle,  such  as 
is  used  by  milliners,  and  set  in  a  handle  if  you  wish.  Three  sable 
brushes,  Nos.  3,  5,  and  7.  Cut  from  brush  No.  3  all  the  bristles, 
leaving  nothing  but  the  abrupt  square  end  of  the  metal  holder; 
from  No.  7  cut  away  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  hair,  Jeaving  it 
with  a  round  end,  and  you  have  the  required  tools. 

Now  arrange  the  velvet  upon  which  the  painting  is  to  be  laid, 
by  stretching  it  upon  pasteboard,  and  fasten  with  thumb  tacks,  so 
as  it  may  be  kept  in  place  for  working  upon :  after  this  is  done, 
stamp  upon  it  the  pattern  you  wish  to  have  painted.  This  can 
better  be  executed  at  a  place  where  stamping  for  embroidery  and 
other  work  is  generally  done,  and  where  designs  can  be  found  from 
which  you  can  select  just  the  pattern  you  wish. 

If  you  have  a  picture  you  would  like  to  paint,  that  is  not  perfor- 
ated, you  may  make  a  transfer  of  it  to  velvet  by  pricking  through 
with  a  fine  needle,  following  carefully  and  completely  the  full  out- 
lines of  the  copy  -before  you,  after  this  is  done,  and  before  the 
picture  is  moved,  press  through  the  now  perforated  pattern  white 
powder,  with  a  soft  pad,  which  will  show  up  the  outlines  of  what 
you  seek,  on  the  velvet  beneath,  or  you  can  use  the  transfer  pro- 
cess given  on  page  28.  It  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  painting. 

The  Colors  used  are  Winsor  &  Newton's  oil  colors  in  tubes, 
and  the  opaque  mixture  for  thinning.  Flake  white,  rose  madder, 
irrulean  blue,  vermilion,  chrome  green  Nos.  1  and  2,  burnt 
sienna,  orange  chrome,  emerald  green.,  mauve  lake.  For  Poppies 
use  Chinese  vermilion,  a  little  chrome  yellow  and  green  for  the 
centers;  for  Pansies  use  mauve  lake,  with  green  and  yellow  for 
the  center;  for  Daisies  (white)  with  yellow  centers,  use  flake 
white,  with  chrome  yellow  for  the  center ;  Forget-me-nots,  use 
light  blue,  by  mixing  white  with  permanent  blue,  dot  the  centers 
with  yellow ;  for  leaves,  use  green,  with  a.  little  Naples  yellow  and 


KENSINGTON  PAINTING.  187 

Chinese  vermilion  for  autumn  leaves ;  for  stems  of  flowers,  use 
green,  and  green  heightened  with  white  for  grasses,  and  where 
the  leaves  require  it ;  for  Wild  Rose,  use  rose  madder  and  white, 
apply  same  as  in  poppy. 

Applying  the  Colors.  After  the  piece  has  been  fastened 
to  the  board,  and  the  flower  is  stamped  thereon,  you  may  begin 
the  painting.  Take  first  a  Forget-me-not.  Commence  with  pen- 
cil No.  3.  Take  upon  the  brush  all  it  will  hold  of  cerulean 
blue,  mixed  with  white  lake,  lay  this  upon  the  point  which  you 
are  to  place  the  flower,  and  with  the  brush  press  it  out  by  rolling 
the  brush  from  the  center  to  the  outline  of  the  petal  of  the  flower, 
in  such  quantities  as  to  show  a  rolled  edge,  (resembling  the  em- 
broidery), leaving  the  center  with  but  little  of  the  paint.  With 
the  same  brush,  or  point  of  the  pen,  (after  cleaning  with  naptha), 
touch  the  center  with  a  small  particle  of  chrome  yellow,  (about 
the  size  of  a  pin  head).  Now,  with  the  needle,  lay  on  ihe  stems, 
using  green.  In  doing  this,  cover  the  whole  of  the  needle  with  the 
color,  and  lay  on  the  velvet  full  length,  drawing  it  over  the 
outline,  and  rolling  in  the  fingers  as  you  move  it.  This  is  also 
used  in  making  flat  grasses  and  leaves.  In  painting  the  daisy 
a  pen  is  used.  Place  the  paint  first  upon  a  palette  knife,  and 
then  take  it  off  from  the  knife  with  the  pen,  which  will  be  found 
much  more  convenient,  being  particular  to  get  the  point  full  of 
the  color  by  laying  the  pen  sideways  when  taking  it  up,  (using 
flake  white),  press  to  the  outside  of  the  flower,  and  by 
bearing  heavy  enough  you  will  find  it  carries  the  color  to  the 
outline  of  the  petal  in  rolls,  leaving  the  center  almost  void 
of  color.  The  instrument  used  for  this  should  be  very  elastic, 
and  one  not  easily  broken  by  bending.  After  you  have  gone  over 
each  petal,  dot  the  center,  by  using  No.  3  brush,  with  chrome 
yellow  and  burnt  sienna,  mixed,  using  enough  of  the  color  to 
fit  the  space  of  pistil. 

In  painting  the  Poppy,  use  No.  7  brush  for  outside  petals,  and 
No.  5  for  inside,  or  .•smaller  ones.  Press  as  before  directed  upon 


188 


KI:\'SINT,TO:;  TAIN 


the  brnx'.i,  and  turning  it  at,  the  same  time  toward  iho  outline, 
pressing  the  paint  io  t  lie  margin  of  the  petal,  and  leaving  it  there 
in  a  roll,  with  the  eentcr  of  the  petal  as  before  mentioned. 
This  being  done,  take  brush  No.  3,  and  with  chrome  yellow  place 
in  the  pistil  and  stamens  (commonly  called  the  "heart").  For 
other  flower?,  follow  instructions  as  previously  laid  down. 

The  outlines  of  flowers  are  made  with  brush  No.  3,  and  the 
pen.  The  needle  is  again  employed  for  drawing  in  the  veins, 
using  for  this  light  green,  and  apply  as  heretofore  directed,  by 
covering  with  the  color,  and  draw  full  length  over  the  outlines 
endwise. 

In  making  autumn  leaves,  take  No.  5  brush,  using  for  this  ver- 
milion, chrome  yellow  and  burnt  sienna,  and  sometimes  a  little 
green.  For  durability,  this  painting  will  compare  favorably 
with  any  other  method.  • 

N.  B. — When  the  opaque  mixture  is  used  no  previous  prepa- 
ration or  coating  of  any  kind  is  necessary.  The  colors  will  not 
spread,  run  or  stain  silk  or  velvet  of  the  most  delicate  shade  or 
tint,  beyond  the  outline. 

Use  the  opaque  mixer,  to  thin  the  paint  to  its  proper  consist- 
ency before  applying,  using  no  oils,  turpentine,  or  dryer  of  any 
kind  with  the  mixer,  as  it  is  of  itself  a  sufficient  dryer. 

If  your  silk  or  material  painted  shows  a  dampness  beyond  the 
line  of  color,  let  it  remain  until  the  coler  dries,  and  it  will  all 
evaporate  dry,  leaving  no  stain  whatever  on  the  material,  placing 
the  paint  beautifully  in  rolls,  to  imitate  what  it  is  intended  to, 
Kensington  embroidery. 


ARRASENE 


ADIES  are  turning  away  from  the  more 
laborious  kinds  of  work,  and  seeking 
that  which  is  artistic,  useful,  and  beauti- 
ful.    Many  who  have  heretofore  sat  idle, 
are  making  their  leisure  hours  pleasant, 
and  their  homes  resplendent  by  aid  of 
decorative  art.    Housekeeping  may   be 
classed  among  those  necessities  which,  to  many, 
is  a  "life-long  torment,"  for  which  there  is 
hardly  a  remedy,  although  there  are  those  who 
find  charms  therein  ;  they  at  the  same  time  are 
almost  lost  amid  the  vast  multitude  of  ordinary 
indifferent  ones.    However,  nearly  all  are  kept 
mindful  of  the  purity  of  the  art  of  home  deco- 
ration, and  are  showing  sufficient  interest  to  do 
something  for  its  elevation. 
Arrasene  embroidery  is  comparatively  new,  yet  its  beauty  has 
so  fascinated  the  women  of  taste  that  teachers  of  the  art  are 
sought  after  everywhere,  and  their  scarcity  has  caused  the  publi- 
cation of  the  following  instructions. 


190  ARRASENE    AKD   RIBBON   EMBROIDERY. 

There  is  a  wool  culled  wool  arra.senc,  and  a  silk  culled  silk 
arrasene ;  the  arrascne  embroidery  is  simply  the  working  of  these 
in  tufts,  to  form  flowers  and  other  ornaments,  such  as  mottoes, 
cushions,  etc.  An  owl  worked  in  grey  arrasene  is  beautiful, 
Inasmuch  as  the  working  of  flowers  seem  to  better  satisfy  the 
taste  of  arrasene  art  workers,  I  will  give  the  instruction, 

How  to  Make  a  Wild  Rose.  For  this  you  will  need  two 
shades  of  satin  or  velvet — either  are  very  pretty.  Have  the  pat- 
tern stamped  or  drawn  on  whatever  you  wish  to  embroider,  plush, 
felt,  satin,  or  other  goods ;  cut  the  satin  in  shape  of  the  petal  of 
the  flower,  and  be  sure  to  have  them  long  enough  to  turn  in  the 
edges.  Now  blindstitch  it  on  the  pattern,  being  careful  to  leave 
fullness  enough  to  form  folds  in  the  petals,  gathering  them  at 
the  center,  using  the  French  knot,  or  seed  stitch,  and  embroidery 
silk,  yellow  and  brown  for  roses.  For  double  rose,  cut  more 
pieces  for  petals,  and  lay  one  over  the  other,  For  daisies,  use 
narrow  white  ribbon,  plaiting  the  ribbon  in  the  center,  filling  in 
with  the  French  knot  stitch,  using  two  shades  of  yellow  airi. 
brown. 

In  making  a  forget-me-not,  use  very  narrow  blue  ribbon,  for 
the  centers  one  knot  stitch  of  yellow  and  one  of  red.  For  green 
leaves  and  stems,  and  the  green  around  the  rose,  (calyx),  use 
arrasene  wool  or  silk,  or  a  part  of  each,  It  is  much  handsomer 
to  use  the  silk  for  high  lights ;  for  stems  of  roses  use  reddish 
brown. 

Many  flowers  can  be  very  effectively  represented  by  the  ribbon 
embroidery,  such  as  dogwoods,  sunflowers,  pansies,  and  other 
varieties. 


PORTRAITURE 


IN 


(s   *         u- 

BLACK 


CRAYON. 


EATON  POETEAITURE,  to  one  who  knows  noth- 
ing of  the  method,  seems  not  only  very  diffi- 
cult, but  almost  unattainable,  except  after 
long  years  of  study  and  practice.  Even  then 
many  suppose  artists  are  born,  not  made. 
The  writer  of  this  article  has  been  employed 
in  teaching  the  art  for  several  years,  and 
could  refer  to  many  pupils  who,  after  com- 
paratively few  lessons,  were  able  to  exe- 
cute finished  portraits  of  real  merit. 
Any  one  who  can  learn  to  write  can  learn  to 
draw,  but  a  special  method  is  necessary  to 
enable  pupils  to  work  intelligently.  Most  other  branches  of  art 
have  been  elaborately  treated  by  able  pens,  but  crayon  drawing 
as  a  study,  has  been  hitherto  neglected.  A  car<*u;  reparation 


192  PORTRAITURE  IK  BLACK  CRAYOH. 

of  written  instructions  cannot  fail  to  enable  one  with  ordinary 
ability  and  taste  to  master  this  most  beautiful  art.  One  of  the 
first  requisites  for  successful  work,  is  to  have  proper  material, 
and  of  the  best  quality. 

PAPER.  The  best  and  only  paper  that  should  be  used  is 
Whatman's  imperial,  or  double  elephant.  It  should  never  be  used 
by  tacking  to  a  drawing  board,  but  must  be  mounted  on  a  stretch- 
er. All  Art  Stores  have  a  ready  supply  of  these,  but  for  the  sake 
of  economy  they  can  be  made  in  the  following  manner.  Take 
a  pine  frame  20x24,  or  any  desired  size,  lay  a  sheet  of  Whatman's 
paper  upon  a  table,  face  side  down,  dampen  it  with  a  sponge  over 
the  entire  surface :  lay  the  frame  upon  it,  and  trim  the  edges  of 
the  paper  with  a  knife,  about  one'  inch  larger  than  the  frame. 
Cut  out  the  corners,  then  with  a  small  brush  put  a  little  flour  paste 
upon  the  paper  beyond  the  frame,  and  also  upon  the  edges  of 
the  frame ;  turn  this  paper  up  on  to  the  edges  of  the  frame, 
drawing  it  a  liitle  with  the  fingers  to  take  out  the  larger  wrinkles, 
and  make  it  adhere  firmly.  Put  away  in  a  cool  room,  to  allow 
the  paper  to  dry,  and  a  stretcher  is  ready  for  use.  Do  not 
moisten  the  paper  on  the  side  upon  which  the  drawing  is  to  be 
made,  as  this  would  occasion  spots,  which  would  spoil  the  work. 
In  selecting  materials,  buy  the  small  paper  stomps,  which  come 
in  packages  of  a  dozen  or  more  ;  one  soft  rolled  chamois  stomp^ 
(avoid  the  hard  stiff  ones) ;  a  stick  of  square  Conte  crayon  No. 
3,  a  piece  of  Coiite  rubber,  which  can  be  sharpened  with  a  knife 
when  it  becomes  too  blunt,  a  few  sticks  of  the  round  glossy  Conte 
crayons,  a  crayon  holder,  and  a  few  sticks  of  soft  charcoal.  Take 
a  small  block  of  wood,  about  3x5  inches,  paste  a  piece  of  fine 
sand  paper  carefully  over  one  or  both  sides,  and  let  it  dry.  This 
block  is  useful  to  sharpen  and  clean  the  rubber  and  paper  stomps. 
Upon  another  block  of  the  same  size,  or  a  little  larger,  paste  a 
piece  of  Whatman's  paper,  smoothing  it  down  carefully,  allow  ing 
this  to  dry  thoroughly.  Take  the  stick  of  No.  3  square  crayon, 
rub  it  over  this  block  hard,  to  make  the  pulverized  crayon  to  be 
used  with  stomps,  or  use  a  fine  file,  and  allow  the  crayon  thus  pul- 


PORTRAITURE  IN  BLACK  CRAYON.         193 

verized  to  fall  upon  the  block.  Keep  this  free  from  dust 
when  not  in  use.  These  are  all  the  materials  necessary  to 
execute  a  crayon  portrait. 

The  next  step  will  be  to  make  the  enlargement  of  the  pho- 
tograph from  which  a  copy  is  to  be  made,  providing  a  solar 
print  is  not  used.  There  are  several  ways  of  doing  this.  The 
best  method  is  to  have  a  good  pentagraph,  unless  one  is  able 
to  draw  the  outline  enlargement  free  hand.  In  either  or  all 
cases  make  the  outline  upon  a  piece  of  manilla  wrapping 
paper,  cut  the  size  of  the  stretcher  intended.  When  this 
enlargement  is  made,  thoroughly  blacken  the  back  with  a 
piece  of  charcoal  by  laying  the  paper  upon  a  smooth  drawing 
board  or  table ;  turn  it  over  and  lay  it  upon  the  stretcher, 
being  careful  to  place  it  so  the  drawing  will  be  in  the  center 
of  the  stretcher,  securing  it  with  tacks  or  pins  at  the  corners, 
in  order  that  it  may  not  slip.  With  a  stylus,  or  hard  lead 
pencil,  trace  over  all  these  outlines  again,  being  careful  to 
follow  them  accurately,  omitting  none.  Remove  the  paper 
with  care,  and  a  definite  outline  of  the  picture  will  be  seen 
upon  the  stretcher.  This  will  rub  off  with  the  slightest 
touch,  therefore  take  one  of  the  paper  stomps,  rub  it  on  the 
block  of  pulverized  crayon,  holding  it  in  the  hand  as  a  pencil, 
trace  lightly  over  these  outlines  in  order  to  prevent  losing 
them  while  at  work  upon  the  picture.  Be  careful,  however, 
to  do  this  very  lightly,  if  not,  the  lines  will  show  when  the 
picture  is  finished,  and  spoil  the  effect  of  the  work. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  put  the  crayon  on  the  dark- 
est part  of  the  features.  Eub  the  paper  stomp  on  the  block 
of  pulverized  crayon  very  hard,  turning  it  around  between 
the  fingers  in  order  to  get  the  crayon  on  the  whole  surface  of 
the  point  and  tapering  end.  Apply  this  lightly  but  firmly, 
and  with  a  broad  stroke  to  the  lines  or  lids  above  the  eyes, 
the  nostrils,  the  line  through  the  center  of  the  mouth,  the 
dark  shades  in  the  ears  and  the  eyebrows,  following  the  out- 


194         PORTRAITURE  IN  BLACK  CRAYON. 

lines  already  upon  the  stretcher.  Put  in  the  pupils  of  the 
eyes  very  black  aud  heavy.  The  stomp  has  now  cleaned  itself 
somewhat.  Next  darken  the  iris  of  the  eye,  put  on  the 
shadows  under  the  eye,  the  curves  of  the  nose  from  the  eye- 
brows to  the  end,  and  the  curves  around  the  nostrils.  Next 
the  upper  lip,  tinting  it  lightly.  Now  define  the  outlines  of 
the  checks,  working  in  light  strokes  inward,  and  hatching 
them,  or  crossing  the  strokes  at  an  acute  angle  (never  at 
right  angles).  Work  for  the  expression,  and  hold  it. 

Having  gone  thus  far  the  stomp  will  be  quite  free  of  color. 
The  blending  process  comes  next  in  order.  Work  slightly 
upward  from  the  lines  around  the  eyes,  borrowing  from  the 
color  already  there  for  the  shadows  desired.  The  same  from 
all  the  features  above  mentioned,  watching  the  photograph 
closely  and  leaving  off  such  shadows  gradually. 

Tint  all  the  darker  shades  on  the  entire  face  in  the  same 
manner,  not  as  dark  at  first  as  they  will  be  required.  Leave 
all  the  strong  high  lights  perfectly  white  until  the  picture  is 
nearly  finished.  In  putting  on  these  shadows  the  hatching 
process  will  be  found  the  most  effective,  not,  however,  by 
making  strong  lines,  but  simply  have  the  strokes  of  the 
stomp  made  in  such  direction,  very  soft  and  indistinct.  If 
any  large  white  spots  seem  to  remain,  thus  destroying  the 
evenness  of  the  tone,  touch  them  over  lightly  until  the  tone 
resembles  in  quality  a  wash  with  India  ink  or  water  color, 
gradually  growing  lighter  and  lighter  until  lost  in  the  high 
lights  and  half  tones.  The  beauty  of  the  finished  portrait 
will  depend  very  largely  upon  this  blending,  as  there  must  be 
no  abrupt  ending  to  any  shadow.  Leave  the  face  for  the 
present,  and  take  the  chamois  stomp,  rubbing  it  on  the  block 
of  crayon  until  the  end  is  thoroughly  covered.  Lay  it  very 
flat  and  lightly  on  the  parts  of  the  hair  which  are  the  darkest, 
commencing  at  the  deepest  part  of  such  shades,  and  ending 
toward  the  high  light.  Leave  these  high  lights  as  in  the  face 
perfectly  white  for  the  present. 


PORTRAITURE  IN  BLACK  CRAYON.         195 

Try  and  follow  the  direction  in  which  the  hair  is  combed, 
but  mass  it.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  show  individual 
hairs.  It  is  simply  light  and  shade  in  masses.  Next  take  the 
clear  end  of  the  chamois  stomp,  borrow  from  the  darker 
shades  to  tint  the  high  lights,  making  broad  strokes.  If  this 
makes  them  too  dark,  lighten  with  the  rubber.  All  rubber 
strokes  in  the  hair  should  also  be  broad,  not  fine  lines.  The 
drapery  comes  next  in  order.  A  black  silk  dress  or  a  broad- 
cloth coat  should  be  worked  in  the  same  manner.  With  the 
chamois  stomp  put  in  the  darker  places  in  the  drapery  first, 
following  the  same  general  rule  of  hatching  only  in  broad 
strokes,  not  lines.  Tint  the  higher  lights  in  the  drapery  with 
the  clean  end  of  the  same  stomp,  borrowing  from  the  darker 
places  as  before.  The  same  rule  should  be  observed  in  ending 
the  drapery,  as  in  the  shadows  of  the  face — let  it  become 
lighter  and  lighter,  until  lost  entirely. 

Note  carefully  the  collar  and  shirt  front.  Generally  there 
will  be  seen  light  shadows  upon  them.  If  so,  tint  lightly 
with  a  clean  stomp,  borrowing  the  color  necessary  from  the 
drapery,  not  from  the  block. 

If  the  drapery  now  appears  spotty  it  must  be  cleaned  up  in 
the  following  manner.  Fill  up  the  lighter  places  with  the 
paper  stomp,  rubbing  lightly  in  different  directions,  while 
the  spots  that  are  too  dark  can  be  cleaned  off  with  the  rubber 
in  light  strokes.  In  this  manner  the  drapery  can  be  worked 
up  very  smoothly,  and  free  from  spots.  The  background 
should  be  worked  up  in  the  same  manner  as  the  drapery,  only 
not  as  dark.  Do  not  put  a  background  around  the  entire  head, 
only  from  the  shoulders  up  about  half  the  distance  to  the 
forehead.  If  the  subject  is  a  lady,  and  lace  work  is  desired, 
make  this  with  the  paper  stomp.  Do  not  work  for  details, 
but  in  an  indistinct  manner,  following  the  original  design 
somewhat,  but  in  soft  strokes,  taking  out  the  high  light  with 
the  rubber,  if  necessary.  The  drapery,  background  and  hair 


196         PORTRAITURE  IN  BLACK  CRAYON. 

are  now  supposed  to  be  finished,  the  above  directions  having 
been  followed  carefully. 

The  finishing  of  the  features  must  now  be  attended  to. 
With  a  paper  stomp,  not  too  black,  strengthen  all  the  darkest 
shades  in  the  face,  borrowing  color  again,  working  the  shades 
off  upon  the  high  lights,  preserving  the  half  tones  and 
reflected  lights.  Unless  the  high  lights  are  very  strong  in 
the  original,  tint  them  over  slightly  with  a  stomp  fairly  clean. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  the  subject,  or  original  photo- 
graph, must  be  studied  very  carefully.  If  this  is  done,  and 
the  outlines  accurately  made,  a  perfect  likeness  will  be  the 
result. 

If  the  pupils  of  the  eyes,  or  any  very  deep  shadow,  nred  a 
little  strengthening,  it  can  be  done  with  the  round  Conte 
crayon,  sharpened  to  a  very  fine  point,  and  hatched  lightly 
over  such  shadows. 

The  finishing  touches  must  be  made  by  using  a  clean  paper 
stomp,  going  over  the  entire  picture,  a  little  beyond  all  the 
outlines,  to  soften  them,  thus  producing  a  soft  and  natural 
effect.  Last  of  all,  take  out  the  catch  light  in  the  eyes,  with 
a  sharp  pointed  knife,  scratching  it  slightly  until  it  is  of  the 
desired  shape. 

In  closing  these  instructions,  the  writer  wishes  to  impress 
upon  the  pupil  or  reader  the  necessity  of  working  at  all  times, 
and  upon  all  parts  of  the  picture,  very  lightly,  if  not,  a  muddy 
effect  will  be  the  result.  The  hatching  should  be  tolerably 
open,  but  not  too  much  so.  This  produces  the  effect  of 
transparency,  which  is  very  desirable. 

If  the  above  instructions  are  carefully  studied,  and  patient 
labor  put  forth,  any  one  may  reasonably  expect  to  obtain 
excellence  in  representing  life-like  and  natural  portraits. 


* 


ANALYSIS  Of  COLONS, 


THEIR  NATURE  AND  DUALITY, 


K  will  begin  with  gall-stone,  which  is  one  of  the  finest 
and  brightest  in  the  world,  and  a  very  lasting  color, 
although  in  face  painting  it  should  be  sparingly 
used,  its  wonderful  brilliancy  being  apt  to  drown  all  the  other 
colors,  and  make  the  work  it  is  used  in  too  warm  in  its  tints. 

Of  Terra  Sienna,  it  is  unburnt,  a  bright  yellow-brown 
earth,  and  is  used  by  some  miniature  painters  as  a  warm  yel- 
low; but  burnt  it  is  a  beautiful  color,  and  partakes  of  three 
tints,  yellow,  red  and  brown. 

Yellow  Oc/ire  is  a  bright  yellow  earth,  and  comes  from 
France,  is  semi-opaque,  and  works  well.  Much  used  by 
artists,  but  must  be  used  witt  caution.  It  is  a  lasting  color, 
and  of  service  in  the  fleshy  face  tints. 

Roman  Ochre  is  a  reddish  yellow  earth  of  a  very  great  body, 
and  used  by  some  with  success  in  miniature  painting.  Used 
with  gum  water  it  works  well,  and  being  a  warm  color,  it 
communicates  that  quality  to  the  tints  it  is  worked  on. 

Naples  Yellow  is  an  earth  found  near  Naples,  and  is  a  soft, 
bright  and  durable  color.  A  great  proportion  of  that  used 
is  composed  of  lead,  alum,  sal-ammonia  and  antimony.  This 

197 


l'J8  ANALYSIS   OF   COLORS. 

color  is  not  very  much  used  by  artists,  as  it  does  not  stand 
well.  Is  a  pale,  gritty  yellow.  It  absorbs  all  colors  that  are 
worked  on  it  or  mixed  with  it. 

Gamboge  is  the  concrete  juice  of  various  trees  in  Ceylon — is 
a  transparent  color,  and  consequently  useful  as  a  glazing 
color. 

Yellows  have  their  base  in  iron,  lead,  quicksilver  and 
arsenic. 

BLUK.  Of  all  blues  in  use  none  can  equal  ultra-marine — 
its  wonderful  brilliancy  and  permanency  excelling  all  others. 
But  it  is  often  adulterated  after  reaching  this  country,  and 
the  genuine  is  not  common.  Put  a  small  quantity  on  a  case 
knife,  and  hold  it  over  a  candle,  keep  the  smoke  from  touch- 
ing it;  if  adulterated  it  will  appear  in  grey  spots,  and  if  gen- 
uine it  will  remain  brilliant  as  at  first.  It  was  formerly  made 
from  lazulite,  the  beatiful  variegated  blue  mineral,  worth  at 
one  time  in  Italy  twenty-five  dollars  an  ounce.  A  greater 
part  of  that  used  now  is  composed  of  carbonate  of  soda,  sul- 
phur and  kaolin,  colored  with  cobalt. 

Prussian  Blue  is  a  good  color,  it  is  a  ferrocyanuret  of  iron, 
produced  in  different  ways.  There  is  no  substitute  for  Prus- 
sian blue  for  miniature  painting  on  account  of  its  strength  of 
effect  and  transparency.  The  best  and  purest  is  that  which 
is  dark  color. 

Indigo  is  beautiful  on  account  of  its  extreme  depth  of  color, 
nearly  approaching  to  black ;  the  best  is  called  the  rock 
indigo. 

Cobalt  is  another  fine  blue,  much  used  in  sky  grounds,  and 
in  the  delicate  parts  of  faces  and  necks. 

French  Ultra.  A  beautiful  bright  blue ;  it  is  adapted  for 
ladies'  drapery — rather  too  powerful  for  pearly  tints  or  flesh. 

Permanent  Blue,  Cerulean.  Useful  in  draperies  and  back- 
grounds ;  also  in  landscape  and  flower  painting.  Not  good 
for  flesh  tints. 


ANALYSIS   OF   COLORS.  199 

Sap  Green  is  the  juice  of  buckthorn  berries,  and  has  proven 
to  be  a  highly  useful  color  when  judiciously  mixed  with  other 
colors,  producing  warm  fleshy  tints  which  cannot  be  made 
without  it. 

Copper  is  the  base  of  most  blues,  though  some  are  formed 
from  iron  and  cobalt. 

REDS.  Carmine  is  a  fine  bright  crimson,  inclining  to  scar- 
let, and  rather  an  opaque  color.  From  it  a  variety  of  fine 
tints  may  be  made,  but  it  being  a  very  high  red,  renders  it 
unfit  for  delicate  subjects ;  in  this  case  use  rose  madder. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  it  prepared  of  other  reds,  but  the 
deep  kind  is  the  best,  the  lighter  being  made  eo  by  adultera- 
tion, commonly  made  of  alum  and  cream  tartar,  colored  with 
cochineal,  but  it  fades  rapidly  by  out  door  exposure.  The 
genuine  is  made  from  kaolin,  or  China  clay,  colored  with 
cochineal,  prepared  with  much  difficulty,  which  makes  it 
expensive. 

Crimson  Lake  is  a  beautiful  crimson  color,  inclining  toward 
the  purple,  making  it  useful  for  the  carnation  tints  in  paint- 
ing delicate  subjects. 

Chinese  Vermilion  is  a  bright  red,  and  useful  in  miniature 
pictures,  though  too  freely  used,  its  opacity  renders  it  dan- 
gerous to  mix  much  with  other  colors,  but  by  itself,  in  touch- 
ing the  lips  and  other  parts  that  require  extreme  brightness, 
it  is  of  good  service.  It  comes  from  China  in  small  parcels, 
fourteen  ounces  each. 

The  native,  or  Mineral  Cinnabar,  or  vermilion,  is  very  fine 
in  Spain  ;  the  French  have  mines  of  it  in  Normandy. 

Light  Red.  Useful  In  almost  all  flesh  colors,  and  the 
ground  upon  which  all  the  finer  tints  are  made. 

Venetian  Red.  Nearly  the  same  as  light  red,  and  used 
almost  for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  an  earth,  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  world. 

Rose  Madder,  indispensable  for  carnation  lips.     This,  with 


200  ANALYSIS   OF   COLORS. 

cobalt,  and  almost  any  transparent  yellow,  forms  all  sorts  of 
pearly  and  grey  tints. 

Indian  Red  is  of  a  deep  purple  cast,  and  a  most  excellent 
color  for  touching  the  deep  red  parts,  and  the  fleshy  tints. 
Also  useful  in  bright  backgrounds  and  draperies. 

B*OWNS.  Umber  is  a  yellowish  brown,  and  mixes  well 
with  water  colors.  Useful  in  backgrounds.  When  properly 
burnt  it  is  a  charming  reddish  brown,  very  useful  in  hair. 
Works  extremely  well. 

Terra  de  Cassel,oi'  Vandyke  brown,  so  called  from  the  very 
great  estimation  the  inimitable  painter  of  that  name  held  it 
in,  is  the  finest  rich  brown  in  the  world,  in  itself  producing  a 
more  beautiful  color  than  can  be  formed  by  the  junction  of 
any  colors  whatever.  It  is  in  general  use,  and  is,  in  its  nat- 
ural state,  rather  coarse  and  sandy,  but  when  prepared,  it 
amply  repays  the  artist  for  his  labor ;  good  glazing  color  for 
hair  shadows. 

Lampblack  is  the  smoke  of  burning  resin,  and  is  useful  for 
marking  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  in  painting  draperies.  It 
is  a  good  color  when  burnt,  stands  and  works  remarkably  well. 
The  smoke  of  a  candle,  received  on  a  plate,  is  found  the  best, 
being  blacker  than  the  common  lampblack.  Ivory  black  is 
preferred  by  some. 

King's  Yellow  is  a  fine  bright  opaque  color,  and  is  admirably 
calculated  for  painting  lace,  gilt  buttons,  etc.,  but  should  be 
cautiously  used,  as  it  is  a  rank  poison. 

Chinese  White  is  permanent,  and  works  remarkably  well;  it 
is  freely  used  on  every  part  of  a  picture  in  water  colors. 

Flake  White.  This  is  the  only  white  adapted  for  oil  colors. 
Chinese  white  is  never  used. 

MIXING  COMPOUND  TINTS  FOE  THE  FACE.  Purple  is 
formed  of  either  ultra-marine,  Prussian  blue,  smalt  or  indigo, 
mixed  with  either  carmine  or  lake.  Ultra-marine,  although 
the  most  beautiful  and  brilliant  of  colors  by  itself,  Uses  that 


ANALYSIS   OF   COLORS. 


201 


perfection  in  any  mixture,  but  it  still  retains  a  sufficient 
share  of  brightness  to  render  it  a  desirable  tint  in  the  pur- 
piish-grey  tints  of  the  face.  Prussian  blue,  mixed  as  before 
mentioned,  makes  a  bright  or  dark  purple,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  either  color.  Indigo  makes  a  still  darker  purple, 
owing  to  its  great  natural  depth  of  color.  French  ultra  and 
carmine,  or  lake,  forms  nearly  the  same  tint  as  ultra-marine, 
and  may  be  used  nearly  for  the  same  purpose. 

Olive  Tints.  A  very  fine  olive  tint  is  formed  of  gall-stone, 
Nottingham  ochre  and  carmine,  or  lake;  and  another  of  sap 
green  and  lake  only. 

TINTS  AND  THE  COLORS  WHICH  PRODUCE  THEM. 
Grey  is  made  by  combining  White  and  Lampblack. 


Buff 

Pearl 

Orange 

Violet 

Purple 

Gold 

Olive 

Chestnut 

Flesh 

Limestone 

Sandstone 

Freestone 

Fawn 

Chocolate 

Drab 

Pea  Green 

Eose 

Copper 

Lemon 

Snuff 

Claret 


White  and  Yellow  Ochre,  Red. 

White,  Black,  Blue. 

Yellow,  Eed. 

Red,  Blue,  White. 

Violet,  Red,  White. 

White,  Stone,  Ochre,  Red. 

Yellow,  Blue,  Black,  White. 

Red,  Black,  Yellow. 

White,  Yellow  Ochre,  Vermilion. 

White,  Yellow  Ochre,  Red,  Black. 

White,  Yellow  Ochre,  Red,  Black. 

Red,  Black,  Yellow  Ochre,  White. 

White,  Yellow,  Red. 

Raw  Umber,  Red,  Black. 

White,  Raw  and  Burnt  Umber. 

White  and  Chrome  Green. 

White,  Madder,  Lake. 

Red,  Yellow,  Black. 

White,  Yellow. 

Yellow,  Vandyke  Brown, 

Bed,  Timber,  Black, 


202  ANALYSIS   OF   COLORS. 

Dove  is  made  by  combining  "White,  Yermilion,  Blue,  Yellow. 
Pink  "  White,  Vermilion,  Lake. 

Cream  "  White,  Yellow. 

Salmon  "  White, Yellow,  Raw  Umber,  Red. 

Straw  "  White,  Chrome  Yellow. 

Lilac  "  White,  with  Violet. 

Changeable        "  Red,  Green,  lightened  with  White. 

Peach  Blossom  "  White,  Red,  Blue,  Yellow. 

Bronze  Green     "  Chrome  Green,  Black,  Yellow,  or 

Black  and  Yellow,  or  Black  and  Green. 

TRANSPARENT  COLORS.  Burnt  Terre  de  Sienna,  Terre 
Verte  Asphaltum,  Dragon's  blood,  Carmine,  Rose  Pink, 
Gamboge,  Prussian  Blue,  all  the  Lakes  and  all  the  Gums. 

SEMI-TRANSPARENT.  Umber,  Vandyke  Brown,  Chrome 
Red,  Emerald  Green,  Indigo,  Verdigris,  Brilliant  Ultra- 
Marine. 

CONTRAST  AND  HARMONY  OF  COLORS.  One  color  will 
generally  harmonize  with  another  when  both  contain  the 
same  base  in  different  proportions.  White  contrasts  with 
Black,  Brown,  and  harmonizes  with  any  other  color.  Yellow 
contrasts  with  Purple,  White,  and  harmonizes  with  Orange 
and  pale  colors.  Orange  contrasts  with  Blue,  and  harmonizes 
with  Red,  Pink.  Red  contrasts  with  Green,  and  harmonizes 
with  Crimson.  Green  contrasts  with  Red,  and  harmonizes 
with  Yellow.  Purple  contrasts  with  Yellow,  White,  and 
harmonizes  with  Crimson.  Black  contrasts  with  pale  colors, 
and  harmonizes  with  deep  colors.  Gold  contrasts  with  dark 
colors,  and  harmonizes  with  light  colors. 


SKINNING,  PREPARING  AND  MOUNTING  THE  MAMMALIA, 
OR  QUADRUPEDS. 


SKINNING. 

7""  ^ 

'HEN  a  quadruped  is  killed,  and  its  skin  intended  for 
stuffing,  the  preparatory  steps  are  to  lay  the  animal 
on  its  back  and  plug  up  its  nostrils,  mouth,  and  any 
wounds  it  may  have  received,  with  cotton  or  tow,  to  prevent 
the  blood  from  disfiguring  the  skin.  The  fox  will  serve  ad- 
mirably our  purpose  as  an  example.  Therefore,  Reynard 
being  procured,  we  need  not  say  how,  lay  him  on  his  back  in 
the  same  position  as  before  recommended,  and  having  first 
stuffed  the  mouth  with  cotton  and  tied  it  up,  and  measured 
his  neck  and  body  with  rule  and  calipers,  and  noted  them, 
proceed.  Make  an  incision  from  the  last  rib  nearly  to  the 
vent,  but  not  quite  up  to  it.  Having  done  so,  proceed  to 
raise  the  skin  all  round  the  incision  as  far  as  the  thighs,  first 
skinning  one  side  and  then  the  other,  using  the  flat  end  of 
the  knife  in  preference  to  the  blade  to  raise  the  skin.  Hav- 
ing reached  the  hind  legs,  separate  the  latter  at  the  femur  or 
thigh-bone,  close  to  the  back-bone,  leaving  the  legs  attached 
to  the  skin.  Now  skin  the  head  quarters  close  up  to  the  tail, 
and  separate  it  from  the  body  at  the  last  vertebrae,  taking 
care  not  to  injure  the  skin.  Pull  the  skin  over  the  heads  of 

203 


204  TAXIDERMY.  • 

the  hip-joints,  and  now  the  carcase  maybe  suspended  by  the 
hind-quarters,  while  the  skin  is  stripped  by  puLing  it  gently 
and  cutting  towards  the  fore-quarters.  The  fore-legs  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  body,  as  the  hind  ones  had  been,  close  to  the 
shoulder-bone,  and  the  skin  fairly  pulled  over  the  head  and 
close  to  the  nose,  when  the  head  is  separated  from  the  body 
by  cutting  through  the  last  vertebrae  of  the  neck.  Reynard 
is  now  skinned,  the  head,  legs,  and  tail  being  all  attached  to 
the  skin,  from  which  the  carcase  is  separated. 

The  flesh  is  now  cut  entirely  away  from  the  cheek-bones, 
the  eyes  removed,  the  brains  taken  out  by  enlarging  the  occip- 
ital opening  behind  the  cranium,  the  whole  cleaned  and 
supplied  with  a  coating  of  arsenical  paste  and  stuffed  with 
tow  or  wool  to  the  natural  size. 

The  legs  are  now  successively  skinned  by  pushing  out  the 
bones  and  inverting  the  skin  over  them  until  the  foot-joint  is 
visible ;  every  portion  of  flesh  and  tendons  must  be  cut  away 
and  the  bone  cleaned  thoroughly,  and  a  coating  of  arsenical 
soap  laid  over  it  as  well  as  the  skin.  Wrap  tow,  or  cotton,  or 
any  other  suitable  material,  round  the  bone,  bringing  it  to  its 
natural  shape,  and  draw  the  skin  over  it  again.  Do  this  to 
each  leg  in  succession,  and  the  body  itself  is  ready  for  stuff- 
ing and  mounting. 

The  utmost  care  will  not  prevent  accidents ;  the  fur  and 
plumage  will  get  sullied,  and  before  stuffing  it  is  well  to  ex- 
amine the  skin,  for  stains  and  spots  are  calculated  to  deterio- 
rate its  appearance.  Grease  or  blood-spots  may  be  removed 
by  brushing  over  with  oil  of  turpentine,  which  is  afterwards 
absorbed  by  dusting  plaster  of  Paris  over.  Macgillivray 
recommends  that  all  skins,  whether  they  are  to  be  put  away 
in  a  cabinet  or  stuffed,  should  receive  a  washing  of  spirits  of 
turpentine  sprinkled  on,  and  gently  brushed  in  the  direction 
of  the  feathers  or  fur.  Not  to  trust  too  much  to  memory,  it  is 
desirable  to  measure  and  note  the  proportions  of  the  animal 
before  skinning,  first  taking  the  muzzle  to  the  tail.  After- 


SKINNING.  205 

wards,  from  the  junction  of  the  tail  to  the  tip.  Secondly, 
from  the  middle  of  the  shoulder-blade,  or  scapula,  to  the 
articulation  of  the  femur,  or  thigh-bone.  Thirdly,  the  ani- 
mal being  placed  on  its  side,  measure  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  scapula  to  the  middle  of  the  sternum — that  is,  to  the 
spot  where  the  two  sides  meet  above,  and  finally  from  the 
socket  of  the  scapula  to  the  socket  of  the  articulation  of  the 
femur,  or  thigh-bone.  In  addition  to  these,  note,  by  meas- 
urement with  caliper  compasses,  the  size  of  the  head,  the  neck, 
the  tail,  and  other  points  which  affect  the  shape  of  the  animal. 
These  measurements  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  stuffing,  and  for 
the  size  of  the  case  and  length  of  the  mounting  wires.  In 
the  process  of  skinning,  it  is  important  to  avoid  penetrating 
to  the  intestines,  or  separating  any  of  the  abdominal  muscles 
which  lead  to  the  intestines ;  any  such  accident  would  be 
very  disagreeable,  as  well  as  injurious  to  the  skin. 

Stuffing  Quadrupeds,  etc.  Let  us  suppose  the  animal 
which  we  intend  to  stuff,  to  be  a  cat.  Wire  of  such  a 
thickness  is  chosen  as  will  support  the  animal  by  being 
introduced  under  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  running  it 
through  each  of  the  four  legs.  A  piece  of  smaller  dimen- 
sions is  then  taken,  measuring  about  two  feet,  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  what  is  termed  by  stuffers,  a  tail- 
bearer.  This  piece  of  wire  is  bent  at  nearly  a  third  of  its 
length,  into  an  oval  of  about  six  inches  in  length  ;  the  two 
ends  are  twisted  together,  so  as  to  leave  one  of  them  some- 
what longer  than  the  other  ;  the  tail  is  then  correctly  meas- 
ured, and  the  wire  is  cut  to  the  length  of  it,  besides  the 
oval.  The  wire  is  then  wrapped  round  with  flax  in  a  spiral 
form,  which  must  be  increased  in  thickness  as  it  approaches 
the  oval,  so  as  to  be  nearly  equal  to  the  dimensions  of  the 
largest  vertebrse,  or  root  of  the  tail.  When  finished,  it  should 
be  rubbed  thinly  over  with  flour  paste,  to  preserve  its  smooth 
form,  which  must  be  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly,  and  then 


206  TAXIDERMY. 

the  surface  should  receive  a  coating  of  the  preservative. 
The  sheath  of  the  tail  must  now  be  rubbed  inside  with  the 
preservative.  This  is  applied  with  a  small  quantity  of  lint, 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  wire,  long  enough  to  reach  the  point 
of  the  tail-sheath.  The  tail-bearer  is  then  inserted  into  the 
sheath,  and  the  oval  part  of  the  wire  placed  within  the  skin 
of  the  belly,  and  attached  to  the  longitudinal  wire,  which  is 
substituted  for  the  vertebras  or  back-bone. 

Four  pieces  of  wire,  about  the  thickness  of  a  crow-quill, 
are  then  taken,  which  must  be  the  length  of  the  legs,  and 
another  piece  a  foot  or  fifteen  inches  longer  than  the  body. 
One  end  of  each  of  these  is  sharpened  with  a  file,  in  a  trian- 
gular shape,  so  that  it  may  the  more  easily  penetrate  the 
parts.  At  the  blunt  end  of  the  longest  piece  a  ring  is 
formed,  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  point  of  a  finger  enter- 
ing it ;  this  is  done  by  bending  the  wire  back  on  itself  a  turn 
and  a-half,  by  the  assistance  of  the  round  pincers.  On  the 
same  wire  another  ring  is  formed  in  a  similar  manner,  con- 
sisting of  one  entire  turn,  and  so  situated  as  to  reach  just  be- 
tween the  animal's  shoulders.  The  remaining  part  of  this 
wire  should  be  perfectly  straight,  and  triangularly  pointed  at 
the  extremity. 

Another  method  of  forming  the  supporting  wires,  as  prac- 
ticed by  M.  Nichols,  is  to  take  a  central  wire,  which  must  be 
the  length  of  the  head,  neck,  body  and  tail  of  the  cat  ;  two 
other  pieces  are  then  taken  and  twisted  round  the  center 
piece,  these  extremities  being  left  for  the  leg  wires.  After 
the  wires  are  thus  twisted  together  the  central  one  is  pulled 
out,  and  the  feet  wires  of  one  side  are  pushed  through  the 
legs  of  one  side  from  the  inside  of  the  skin,  and  the  other  two 
leg  pieces  are  bent  and  also  forced  through  the  legs,  and  after- 
ward made  straight  by  a  pair  of  pincers  ;  the  center  piece, 
having  been  previously  sharpened  at  one  end  with  a  file,  is 
now  forced  through  the  forehead  and  down  the  neck,  till  it 
enters  the  center  of  the  twisted  leg  wires  which  it  formerly 


occupied,  and  pushed  forward  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail, 
leaving  a  small  piece  projecting  out  of  the  forehead,  after 
which  the  completion  of  the  stuffing  is  proceeded  with. 

This  mode  is  unnecessary  for  the  smaller  animals,  and  it 
should  only  be  adopted  for  quadrupeds  the  size  of  deer,  etc. 
These  wires  are,  besides,  much  more  difficult  to  insert  by  this 
than  by  the  other  method. 

All  the  wires  being  adjusted,  the  operation  of  stuffing  is 
next  proceeded  with.  The  skin  of  the  cat  is  now  extended  on 
a  table  ;  and  the  end  of  the  noose  seized  with  the  left  hand, 
and  again  pushed  into  the  skin,  till  it  reaches  the  neck,  when 
we  receive  the  bones  of  the  head  into  the  right  hand.  The 
skull  is  now  well  rubbed  over  with  the  arsenical  soap,  and  all 
the  cavities  which  the  muscles  before  occupied  are  filled  with 
chopped  tow,  flax,  or  cotton,  well  mixed  with  preserving 
powder.  The  long  piece  of  wire  is  now  passed  into  the  mid- 
dle of  the  skull,  and  after  it  is  well  rubbed  over  with  the  pre- 
servative, it  is  returned  into  the  skin.  The  inner  surface  of 
the  neck-skin  is  now  anointed,  and  stuffed  with  chopped  flax, 
taking  care  not  to  distend  it  too  much.  Nothing  like  pressure 
should  be  applied,  as  the  fresh  skin  is  susceptible  of  much 
expansion. 

Observe  that  it  is  always  the  inner  surface  which  is 
anointed  with  the  arsenical  soap.  Take  care  that  the  first 
ring  of  the  wire,  which  passes  into  the  head  is  in  the 
direction  of  the  shoulders,  and  the  second  corresponding 
with  the  pelvis,  or  somewhat  toward  the  posterior  part. 
One  of  the  fore-leg  wires  is  then  inserted  along  the  back  of 
the  bone,  and  the  point  passed  out  under  the  highest  ball  of 
the  paw.  When  this  is  accomplished  the  bones  of  the  leg 
are  drawn  up  within  the  skin  of  the  body,  and  the  wire  fast- 
ened to  the  bones  of  the  arm  and  fore-arm  with  strong  thread 
or  small  twine.  Brass  wire,  used  for  piano  forte  strings, 
makes  it  more  secure,  and  is  not  liable  to  rot.  These  aro  well 
anointed,  and  flax  or  tow  slivers  wrapped  around  them  so  as 


£08  TAXIDKRMY. 

to  supply  the  place  of  the  muscles  which  have  been  removed. 
To  give  the  natural  rise  to  the  larger  muscles,  a  piece  of  sil- 
ver should  be  cat  off  the  length  of  the  protuberance  required 
and  placed  in  the  part,  and  the  silver  wrapped  over  it.  This 
gives  it  a  very  natural  appearance. 

The  mode  of  fixing  the  legs  is  by  passing  one  of  their  pieces 
of  wire  into  the  small  ring  of  the  horizontal  or  middle  sup- 
porting wire.  Pursue  the  same  plan  with  the  other  leg,  and 
then  twist  the  two  ends  firmly  together  by  the  aid  of  a  pair 
of  fiat  pincers.  For  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a  cat,  the  pieces 
left  for  twisting  must  be  from  five  to  six  inches  in  length. 
After  being  twisted,  they  are  bound  on  the  under  side  of  the 
body  wire  with  strong  thread;  the  two  legs  are  then  replaced 
and  put  in  the  form  in  which  we  intend  to  fix  them.  The 
skin  of  the  belly  and  top  of  the  shoulders  is  then  anointed, 
and  a  thick  layer  of  flax  placed  under  the  middle  wire.  The 
shape  is  now  given  to  the  scapulae  on  both  sides,  and  all  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulders  imitated.  These  will  be  elevated  or 
depressed,  according  to  the  action  intended  to  be  expressed. 
The  anterior  part  of  the  opening  is  now  sewed  up,  to  retain 
the  stuffing,  and  to  enable  us  to  complete  the  formation  of 
the  shoulders  and  junction  of  the  neck.  This  part  of  the 
animal  is  of  great  importance,  as  regards  the  perfection  of  its 
form,  and  much  of  its  beauty  will  depend  upon  this  being 
well  executed. 

If  the  animal  has  been  recently  skinned,  the  best  plan 
possible  is  to  imitate,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  muscles  of 
the  carcase,  by  which  many  parts  will  be  noticed  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  neglected.  As  a  rule,  COPY  NAT- 
URE WHENEVER  YOU  HAVE  IT  IN  YOUR  POWER. 

It  must  be  observed  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  wires  for 
the  hind  legs  of  quadrupeds  should  always  be  longer  than 
those  of  the  fore  legs. 

The  next  thing  is  to  form  the  hind  legs  and  thighs,  which 
must  be  done  as  above  described  for  the  fore  legs;  but  with 


SKINNING.  209 

this  difference,  that  they  must  be  wound  round  with  thread, 
drawn  through  the  stuffing  at  intervals,  to  prevent  it  slipping 
up  when  returned  into  the  skin  of  the  leg.  They  are  then 
fixed  by  passing  the  leg  wires  into  a  second  ring  of  the  cen- 
ter body  wire,  which  is  situated  at  or  near  the  pelvis;  the 
two  ends  are  then  bent,  twisting  them  to  the  right  and  left 
around  the  ring ;  and,  to  make  them  still  more  secure,  they 
should  be  wound  round  with  small  brass  wire  or  packthread; 
the  tail-bearer  is  then  attached  in  the  manner  formerly  de- 
scribed. 

Having  completed  this  part  of  the  iron  work,  the  gkin  of 
the  thighs  is  coated  inside  with  the  preservative,  and  the 
stuffing  completed  with  chopped  flax  or  tow.  The  whole  in- 
ner parts  of  the  skin  which  can  be  reached  are  again 
anointed,  and  the  body  stuffing  completed  with  chopped 
flax.  Care  must  be  also  paid  not  to  stuff  the  belly  too  much, 
as  the  skin  very  easily  dilates.  The  incision  in  the  belly  is 
now  closed  by  bringing  the  skin  together,  and  then  sewed 
within  and  without,  while  attention  is  paid  to  divide  the 
hairs,  and  not  to  take  any  of  them  in  along  with  the  thread ; 
but  should  any  of  them  be  inadvertently  fixed,  they  can  be 
picked  out  easily  with  a  point.  When  this  is  completed,  the 
hair  will  resume  its  natural  order  and  completely  conceal 
the  seam. 

The  seam  should  now  be  well  primed  on  both  sides  with 
the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  moths. 

The  articulations  of  the  legs  are  then  bent,  and  the  animal 
placed  on  its  feet,  and  pressure  used  at  the  natural  flat 
places,  so  as  to  make  the  other  parts  rise  where  the  muscles 
are  visible. 

A  board  is  now  prepared,  on  which  to  place  the  cat.  But 
before  fixing  it  permanently  the  animal  should  be  set  in  the 
attitude  in  which  it  is  intended  to  be  preserved,  and  the 
operator,  having  satisfied  himself,  then  pierces  four  holes  for 


210  TAXIDERMY. 

the  admission  of  the  feet  wires,  which  must  be  drawn 
through  with  a  pair  of  pincers  till  the  paws  rest  firmly  on 
the  board.  Small  grooves  are  then  made  for  the  reception  of 
the  pieces  of  wires  which  have  been  drawn  through,  so  that 
they  may  be  folded  back  and  pressed  down  in  them,  and  not 
be  beyond  the  level  of  the  back  of  the  board ;  wire  nails  are 
now  driven  half  in,  and  their  heads  bent  down  on  the  wires 
to  prevent  them  from  getting  loose  or  becoming  movable. 

The  stuffer  next  directs  his  attention  to  the  position  and 
final  stuffing  of  the  head  and  neck.  The  muscles  of  the  face 
must  be  imitated  as  correctly  as  possible  by  stuffing  in  cot- 
ton at  the  opening  of  the  eyes,  as  also  at  the  mouth,  ears  and 
nostrils.  To  aid  in  this  also  the  inner  materials  may  be 
drawn  forward  by  the  assistance  of  instruments,  and  also 
small  pieces  of  wood  formed  like  small  knitting  meshes. 

Our  next  care  is  the  insertion  of  the  eyes,  which  must  be 
done  while  the  eyelids  are  yet  fresh.  Some  dexterity  and 
skill  are  required  in  this  operation,  and  on  it  will  depend 
most  of  the  beauty  and  character  of  the  head.  The  seats  of 
the  eyes  are  supplied  with  a  little  cement,  the  eyes  put  in 
their  place,  and  the  eyelids  properly  drawn  over  the  eyeballs; 
but  if  rage  or  fear  are  to  be  expressed,  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  eyeballs  must  be  exposed.  The  lips  are  afterwards 
disposed  in  their  natural  state  and  fastened  with  pins.  If 
the  mouth  is  intended  to  be  open,  it  will  be  necessary  to  sup- 
port the  lips  with  cotton,  which  can  be  removed  when  they 
are  dry.  Two  small  balls  of  cotton,  firmly  pressed  together 
and  well  tinctured  with  the  arsenical  soap,  must  be  thrust 
into  the  nostrils  so  as  to  completely  plug  them  up  to  prevent 
the  air  from  penetrating,  as  also  the  intrusion  of  moths;  and, 
besides,  it  has  the  effect  of  preserving  the  natural  shape  of 
the  nose  after  it  has  dried.  The  same  precaution  should  be 
adopted  with  the  ears,  which,  in  the  cat,  require  but  little  at- 
tention in  setting. 

We  must  again  recommend  the  stufier  to  see  that  he  has 


SKINNING.  211 

sufficiently  applied  the  preservative  soap ;  and  the  nose,  lips, 
eyes  and  paws,  being  very  liable  to  decay,  must  be  well  im- 
bued with  spirits  of  turpentine.  This  is  applied  with  a 
brush,  and  must  be  repeated  six  or  eight  times,  at  intervals 
of  some  days,  until  we  are  certain  of  the  parts  being  well 
primed  with  it ;  and,  after  all,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  it 
a  single  coating  of  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

The  methods  of  stuffing,  which  we  have  pointed  out  in  the 
preceding  pages,  are  applicable  to  all  animals,  from  a  lion 
down  to  the  smallest  mouse.  Animals  of  a  large  description 
require  a  frame- work  suited  to  their  dimensions;  these  we  will 
point  out  in  their  order.  There  are  also  some  animals  whose 
peculiarity  of  structure  requires  treatment  differing  a  little 
from  the  ordinary  course. 

Apes  and  Monkeys.  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  to  con- 
tend with  in  setting  up  monkeys  and  apes,  is  the  preserva- 
tion of  their  hands  and  hind  hands,  or  what  we  commonly 
call  their  feet;  because  we  must  not  attempt  to  deprive  these 
limbs  of  their  flesh,  as  we  never  could  again  supply  its  place 
anything  like  what  is  in  nature.  The  hands  must  therefore  be 
dried,  and  then  well  imbued  with  turpentine  and  the  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  repeated  eight  or  ten  times  at  least,  at 
intervals  of  four  or  five  days.  The  other  parts  of  the  stuffing 
should  be  exactly  similar  to  that  recommended  for  quadru- 
peds generally.  The  paws  of  several  will  require  to  be  colored 
with  the  different  varnishes,  and,  when  dry,  slightly  polished 
with  fine  sand  paper  to  remove  the  gloss.  The  callosities,  on 
the  hinder  parts  of  many  of  them,  will  also  require  to  be  col- 
ored, and  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  face. 

Bats.  The  wing-membranes  of  this  varied  and  numerous 
tribe  do  not  require  either  wire  or  parchment  to  set  them. 
They  are  very  easily  dried  by  distension.  They  are  laid  on 
a  board  of  soft  wood,  the  wings  extended  and  pinned  equally 


212  TAXIDERMY. 

at  the  articulations,  and,  when  dry,  they  are  removed  from 
the  board. 

Hedgehogs.  When  it  is  wished  to  preserve  hedgehogs, 
rolled  into  a  ball,  which  is  a  very  common  position  with  them 
in  a  state  of  nature,  there  should  be  much  less  stuffing  put 
into  them  than  is  uiual  with  quadrupeds,  so  that  they  may 
the  more  easily  bend.  No  wires  are  required  in  this  case. 
The  head  and  feet  are  drawn  close  together  under  the  belly; 
then  place  the  animal  on  its  back  in  the  middle  of  a  large 
cloth,  and  tie  the  four  ends  firmly  together;  suspend  it  in  the 
air  till  thoroughly  dry,  which  finishes  the  operation. 

If  hedgehogs  are  wished  with  the  heads  and  limbs  ex- 
posed, the  usual  method  of  mounting  is  adopted.  The  skins 
of  mice,  moles,  etc.,  having  a  very  offensive  smell,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  add  a  considerable  portion  of  the  tincture  of 
musk  to  the  solution  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  with  which 
the  skins  are  imbued.  The  same  applies  to  badgers,  wolver- 
enes, polecats  and  skunks,  all  of  which  are  strong  smelling 
animals. 

Bears.  The  structure  of  the  wires  requires  to  be  different 
in  these  larger  animals  from  any  we  have  before  described. 

Procure  a  bar  one  inch  thick,  two  inches  broad,  and  as  long 
as  to  reach  horizontally  from  the  shoulders  to  the  connection 
of  the  thighs,  or  os  pubis.  A  hole  is  bored  four  inches  distant 
from  one  of  its  ends,  from  which  a  connecting  groove  must 
be  formed,  extending  on  both  sides  to  the  end  of  the  plank 
next  the  hole ;  this  groove  must  be  cut  out  with  a  hollow 
chisel  deep  enough  to  receive  the  wire.  The  wire  is  then 
passed  through  it,  one  end  of  which  is  just  long  enough  to  be 
twisted  with  the  other  at  the  end  of  the  plank.  The  wire  on 
both  sides  is  now  pressed  down  into  the  grooves  and  twisted 
firmly  together  by  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  strong  pincers.  Pierce 
some  holes  obliquely  into  the  groove  and  insert  some  wire 


SKINNING.  213 

nails  into  them,  which  must  be  firmly  driven  home,  and  then 
bent  over  the  wires  to  keep  them  firm.  The  longest  end  of 
the  wire  should  be  at  least  eighteen  inches  beyond  the  bar  so 
as  to  pass  through  the  skull  of  the  animal. 

The  use  of  this  bar,  it  will  be  observed,  is  a  substitute  for 
the  central  or  supporting  wires  of  the  body.  Two  other  holes 
are  now  bored  into  it,  the  one  two,  and  the  other  three  inches 
from  the  end  which  we  first  pierced ;  these  are  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  wires  of  the  fore  legs ;  and  two  similar  holes  must 
be  made  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  bar  for  reeeiving  the 
wires  of  the  hind  legs. 

Bears  always  support  themselves  on  the  full  expansion  of 
their  dilated  paws,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  bring  the  leg- 
wires  out  at  the  claws.  The  leg-wires  are  bent  at  right  angles 
for  a  length  of  five  inches  from  the  upper  end.  These  are  put 
through  the  holes  in  the  bar,  and  when  they  have  passed 
through  they  are  curved  agfin.  Two  small  gimlet-holes  are 
then  made  for  the  reception  of  smaller  wire,  by  which  the 
leg-wires  must  be  bound  together  close  to  the  bar.  The  fore- 
leg-wires are  fixed  in  the  same  manner,  which  completes  the 
framework. 

No  other  means  are  used  for  middle-sized  animals,  such  as 
the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  etc.  The  stuffing  is  completed  as  in 
other  quadrupeds. 

The  walrus,  seals,  and  other  amphibious  animals  of  this 
order,  are  treated  in  the  manner  of  quadrupeds  generally, 
only  that  leg-wires  are  unnecessary,  except  in  the  fore-feet; 
the  tail,  which  represents  the  hind-feet,  has  merely  to  be  dried 
and  kept  properly  stretched  in  during  this  process,  which 
precaution  also  applies  to  the  fore-feet.  They  are  the  easiest 
stuffed  of  all  animals,  only  the  skins  are  very  oily;  they  should 
be  well  rubbed  with  the  arsenical  soap,  and  also  with  the  pre- 
serving powder. 

The  stuffing  of  the  walrus,  and  other  large  animals  of  this 


211  TAXIDEHMY. 

family,  should  consist  of  well  dried  hay  for  the  interior  parts 
and  tow  for  the  surface  next  the  skin. 

Beaver,  etc.  The  beaver,  musk  rat,  common  rat,  and 
other  auimals  whose  skins  have  a  strong  smell.  These  require 
to  be  plentifully  supplied  with  the  preservative.  The  tail  of 
the  beaver  should  be  cut  underneath,  and  all  the  flesh  removed, 
then  stuffed  with  tow  or  chopped  flax,  and  afterwards  thor- 
oughly dried  and  well  primed  with  the  arsenical  soap  to  pre- 
vent putrefaction,  to  which  it  is  very  liable.  It  should  also 
have  repeated  washings  with  oil  of  turpentine.  The  back 
should  be  round  and  short. 

The  Porcupine.  In  stuffing  this  animal  considerable 
and  varied  expression  may  be  given,  both  from  the  attitude 
and  disposition  of  the  quills.  Great  attention  is  therefore 
required  in  giving  these  a  proper  set  during  the  process  of 
drying.  They  will  require  to  be  looked  at  several  times  dur- 
ing the  first  and  second  day  after  they  have  been  stuffed,  and 
any  of  them  that  may  have  fallen  out  of  the  position  required, 
to  be  adjusted. 

Hares  and  Rabbits.  A  very  pretty  attitude  for  the  hare 
or  rabbit,  is  to  have  it  seated  in  its  form  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion, as  if  alarmed  at  the  noise  of  dogs,  etc.  An  oval  is 
formed  of  wire  and  attached  to  the  interior  framework,  after 
having  passed  one  end  of  it  through  the  anus,  which  must  be 
passed  through  a  hole  in  the  board  on  which  the  animal  is  to 
be  fixed.  The  wires  of  the  hind  legs  must  be  forced  through 
the  posterior  part  of  them,  and  also  fixed  into  holes  formed 
for  their  reception  in  the  board. 

Deer,  Antelopes,  Goats,  etc.  These  animals  should  be 
mounted  on  the  same  principles  as  recommended  for  the  bears. 
A  different  mode  must,  however,  be  adopted  in  skinning  the 


SKINNING.  215 

animals,  which  the  horns  render  necessary.  It  is  performed 
in  the  ordinary  manner  until  the  operator  reaches  the  neck. 
After  cutting  as  near  the  head  as  possible,  another  incision 
must  be  made,  commencing  under  the  chin,  which  is  con- 
tinued to  the  bottom  of  the  neck,  or  from  eight  to  ten  inches 
in  length.  By  this  opening,  the  remainder  of  the  neck  is 
separated  from  the  head;  the  tongue  is  cut  out,  and  the  occip- 
ital orifice  enlarged,  and  the  brain  extracted  thereby.  The 
lips  are  now  cut  as  near  as  possible  to  the  jaw  bones,  and  the 
operator  must  continue  progressively  ascending  towards  the 
forehead,  and  in  this  manner  all  the  skin  will  be  separated 
from  the  head,  except  at  the  nose,  or  point  of  the  muzzle. 
All  the  muscles  are  next  removed  by  the  scalpel,  and  the  skull 
well  anointed  with  arsenical  soap.  The  muscles  which  have 
been  cut  out  are  then  imitated  with  chopped  flax  or  cotton, 
which  may  be  attached  to  the  bones  with  cement.  When  this 
is  done,  the  head  must  be  replaced  within  the  skin.  The  ori- 
fice under  the  neck  must  now  be  sewed  up  with  fine  stitches, 
so  that  the  hair  may  spread  over  them  to  conceal  the  seam. 
The  whole  other  parts  of  the  mounting  is  completed  as 
directed  for  the  bear. 

The  Dolphin,  Porpoise,  etc.  The  structure  of  these  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  of  the  other  species  of  the  first  family  of  this 
order,  differs  but  little  in  general  structure. 

In  skinning  these,  an  incision  is  made  under  the  chin,  and 
continued  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail ;  the  skin  is  then  de- 
tached right  and  left  with  the  scalpel,  or  a  sharp  knife. 
When  the  skin  has  been  cut  back  as  far  as  possible,  disen- 
gage the  vertebrae  at  the  tail,  and  this  will  enable  the  oper- 
ator to  detach  the  skin  from  the  back  ;  the  vertebrae  are  now 
cut  close  to  the  head,  and  the  whole  carcase  removed. 

All  this  tribe  have  a  thick  layer  of  fat  under  their  skin.  In 
the  operation  of  skinning  it  requires  considerable  dexterity 
to  leave  this  fat,  or  blubber,  adherring  to  the  carcase.  Prac- 


216  TAXIDERMY. 

tice  alone  will  obviate  this.  When  this  has  not  been  prop- 
erly managed  in  the  skinning,  the  only  thing  to  be  done 
afterwards  is  to  scrape  it  thoroughly  with  a  knife.  The  oil 
which  flows  from  it  during  this  operation  must  be  soaked  up 
with  bran,  or  plaster  of  Paris. 

There  being  no  muscular  projections  in  the  skin  of  the 
porpoise,  there  is  no  use  for  wires  in  mounting  it,  A  narrow 
piece  of  wood  the  length  of  the  body  is  quite  sufficient  to 
keep  the  skin  stretched,  and  stuffed  either  with  tow  or  hay. 
Some  months  are  necessary  to  render  it  perfectly  dry  and 
stiff,  from  its  greasy  nature.  The  grease  almost  always  leaves 
some  disagreeable  looking  spots  on  the  skin.  To  remove  these, 
and  prevent  a  recurrence  of  them,  powdered  pumice-stone 
steeped  in  olive  oil,  is  rubbed  thickly  on  the  skin  with 
a  hand-brush.  It  is  then  gone  over  a  second  time  with 
emery  and  oil.  It  is  rubbed  in  this  way  till  the  skin  has  a 
glossy  appearance,  when  it  may  be  rubbed  dry  with  a  woolen 
cloth ;  and  to  complete  the  polish,  a  clean  woolen  cloth  may 
be  applied  with  some  force  to  complete  the  gloss,  which  is 
natural  to  the  skin  in  a  living  state. 

Where  a  very  glossy  appearance  is  wished,  varnishes  be- 
come necessary,  but  some  difficulty  has  been  experienced 
in  getting  these  to  remain  attached  to  the  skin  in  all  weath- 
ers, because  the  humidity  of  rainy  seasons  melts  gum- 
arabic  when  it  is  used  as  a  varnish,  and  when  white  varnish 
is  applied,  both  it  and  the  gum-arabic  fall  off  in  pieces.  To 
prevent  the  gum  from  falling  off  in  this  way,  by  its  contract- 
ing, the  solution  should  have  about  an  eighth  part  of  ox-gall 
mixed  with  it,  and  the  surface  of  any  body  to  be  varnished 
should  be  washed  with  ox-gall  and  water  before  the  varnish 
is  applied,  which  will,  almost  to  a  certainty,  prevent  it  from 
cracking  and  falling  off.  It  must,  however,  be  thoroughly 
dried  before  the  varnish  is  applied. 

We  may  here  state,  that  an  animal  the  size  of  a  fox  or 
a  cat,  may  be  skinned,  prepared,  and  finally  set  up,  in  the 


SKINNING.  217 

space  of  four  or  five  hours,  by  a  person  who  has  had  a  little 
practice  in  the  art  of  taxidermy,  and  that  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen minutes  are  all  that  will  be  required  to  skin  an  animal 
of  the  size  just  mentioned. 


SKINNING,  PRESERVING  AND  MOUNTING  BIRDS. 


SKINNING. 

'f IMMEDIATELY  after  a  bird  is  killed  the  throat  and 
nostrils  should  be  stuffed  with  tow,  cotton  or  fine 
rags,  and  a  small  quantity  wound  round  the  bill,  to 
prevent  the  blood  from  staining  the  plumage ;  but  should 
any  get  on  the  feathers,  notwithstanding  this  precaution,  the 
sooner  it  is  removed  the  better,  which  should  be  effected  by 
a  sponge  which  has  been  merely  moistened  in  water.  Too 
much  dispatch  cannot  be  used  in  removing  the  skin,  if  the 
bird  is  shot  in  a  warm  climate;  but,  in  temperate  regions,  the 
bird  may  be  allowed  to  cool. 

In  proceeding  to  skin  the  bird  it  should  be  laid  on  its 
back  and  the  feathers  of  the  breast  separated  to  the  right 
and  left,  when  a  broad  interval  will  be  discovered,  reachihg 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  breast-bone. 

A  sharp  penknife,  or  scapel,  must  be  inserted  at  the  point 
of  the  bone,  and  cut  the  outer  skin  from  thence  to  the  vent, 
taking  care  not  to  penetrate  so  deep  as  the  flesh,  or  upon  the 
inner  skin  which  covers  the  intestines.  The  skin  will  then 
easily  be  separated  from  the  flesh,  in  larger  specimens  by  the 
fingers,  or  in  smaller  ones  by  passing  a  small  blunt  instru- 
ment betwixt  the  skin  and  body,  such  as  the  end  of  the 
scalpel  handle;  with  this  you  may  reach  the  back.  The 
thighs  should  now  be  pressed  inwards,  as  in  the  common 
method  of  skinning  a  rabbit,  and  the  skin  turned  back,  so  far 


218  TAXIDERMY. 

as  to  enable  you  to  separate  the  legs  from  the  body  at  the 
knee-joint.  The  skin  is  then  pulled  downwards  as  low  as  the 
rump,  which  is  cut  close  by  the  insertion  of  the  tail,  but  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  injure  its  feathers.  The  skin  is  now 
drawn  upwards  the  length  of  the  wings,  the  bones  of  which 
must  also  be  cut  at  the  shoulder-joints ;  it  is  then  pulled  up 
till  all  the  back  part  of  the  skull  is  laid  bare,  when  the  verte- 
brae of  the  neck  are  separated  from  the  head,  and  the  whole 
body  is  now  separated  from  the  skin.  You  next  proceed  to 
remove  the  brain,  through  the  opening  of  the  skull,  for  which 
purpose  it  may  be  enlarged  by  a  hollow  chisel,  or  other  iron 
instrument.  The  eyes  must  then  be  taken  out,  by  breaking 
the  slender  bones  which  separate  the  orbits  from  the  top  of 
the  mouth,  in  which  you  may  be  assisted  by  pressing  the  eyes 
gently  inwards,  so  as  not  to  break  them.  In  skinning  the 
neck,  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  enlarge  the  opening  of 
the  ears,  and  not  to  injure  the  eyelids.  The  whole  of  the  flesh 
is  next  to  be  removed  from  the  under  mandible. 

Several  species  will  not  admit  of  the  skin  being  thus  pulled 
over  their  heads,  from  the  smallness  of  their  necks;  some 
woodpeckers,  ducks,  etc.,  fall  under  this  description;  in  which 
case  a  longitudinal  incision  is  made  under  the  throat,  so  as  to 
admit  of  the  head  being  turned  out,  which  must  be  neatly 
sewed  up  before  stuffing.  The  flesh  from  the  head,  wings, 
legs  and  rump,  must  then  be  carefully  removed  with  a  knife, 
and  the  cavities  of  the  skull  filled  with  cotton  or  tow.  The 
whole  inside  of  the  skin,  head,  etc.,  must  be  well  rubbed  with 
arsenical  soap,  or  preserving  powder,  or  spirits  of  turpentine, 
or  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  When  it  is  wished  to 
stuff  the  bird,  it  may  now  be  immediately  done,  as  it  will 
easily  dry  if  in  a  warm  climate ;  but  in  low,  damp  countries, 
it  will  require  artificial  heat  to  do  it  effectually. 

When  the  skins  are  merely  wished  preserved,  the  bones  of 
the  legs  and  wings  should  be  wrapped  round  with  cotton  or 
tow,  so  as  to  supply  the  place  of  the  flesh  j  the  skin  is  then 


SKINNING.  2 19 

inverted  and  hung  up  to  dry,  after  using  the  arsenical  soap, 
as  above  directed ;  before  doing  which,  in  larger  birds,  a  thread 
or  small  string  may  be  drawn  through  the  rump,  and  passed 
up  the  inside  of  the  neck  and  drawn  through  the  bill,  to  pre- 
vent the  head  from  stretching  too  much  by  its  own  weight. 
In  larger  specimens,  where  cotton  or  tow  is  not  easily  to  be 
met  with,  well  dried  hay  may  be  used. 

The  incision  for  removing  the  skin  is  frequently  made  under 
the  wings.  This  may  be  done  with  marine  birds  to  advantage. 
The  penguins  and  divers  may  be  skinned  by  making  the  in- 
cision in  the  back. 

The  tongue  should  either  be  kept  in  the  mouth,  or  sent 
home  separately  with  the  Thirds. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  fat  and  oily 
matter,  so  common  to  sea-birds,  from  getting  on  the  feathers : 
pounded  chalk  will  be  found  an  excellent  absorbent  for  ap- 
plying to  these  birds. 

In  sending  home  specimens  of  birds,  they  should  be  each 
wrapped  in  paper  and  closely  packed  in  a  box ;  and  cam- 
phor, preserving  powder,  and  strong  aromatics,  strewed 
amongst  them,  to  prevent  them  from  being  attacked  by  in- 
sects ;  and  they  ought  to  be  kept  in  a  very  dry  part  of  the 
vessel. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  know  the  color  of  the 
eyes  and  legs  of  birds,  and  these  things  should  be  carefully 
noted  the  moment  they  are  killed ;  and  it  should  also  be  men- 
tioned whether  they  are  male  or  female ;  such  a  memorandum 
ought  to  be  attached  to  the  birds  by  a  ticket.  The  season  of 
the  year  in  which  the  bird  is  killed,  must  also  be  mentioned. 
It  is  also  of  much  consequence  to  have  good  skeletons,  and, 
for  this  purpose,  the  carcasses  may  be  sent  home  in  a  bar- 
rel, either  in  spirits  or  a  strong  solution  of  salt  and  water. 

Mr.  Salt,  while  in  Abyssinia,  packed  his  bird-skins  between 
sheets  of  paper,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  hortus  siccus,  or  herb- 
arium, and  they  reached  England  in  perfect  safety,  and  made 


220  TAXIDERMY. 

excellent  specimens  when  set  up.  In  warm  climates,  the 
boxes  should  be  well  closed,  and  the  seams  filled  with  warm 
pitch  on  the  outside,  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  insects ;  and 
the  inside  should  be  supplied  with  camphor,  musk,  or  to- 
bacco-dust, which  will  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  smaller 
insects. 

Till  practice  has  given  facility  to  the  operator,  it  will 
assist  in  keeping  the  feathers  clean,  if,  as  he  opens  the  skin 
of  the  breast,  he  pins  pieces  of  paper  or  linen  cloth  on  the 
outside;  but,  after  a  few  trials,  this  will  be  unnecessary. 

Some  of  the  marine  fowls  are  so  fat  that  there  is  much 
trouble  in  separating  it  from  the  skin,  and,  in  warm  weather, 
great  attention  will  be  required  t»  prevent  it  from  running 
on  the  feathers.  As  much  as  possible  should  be  scraped 
off,  in  the  first  place,  with  a  blunt  table-knife  or  palate- 
knife,  and  a  quantity  of  powdered  chalk  applied,  to  absorb 
what  remains,  which,  when  saturated  with  the  oily  matter, 
should  be  scraped  off,  and  a  fresh  supply  used ;  after  which 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  preserving  powder  should  be 
applied  than  in  other  birds  which  are  not  fat. 

When  shooting  on  the  sea  coast,  if  the  ornithologist  is  not 
provided  with  these  requisities  for  absorbing  the  oil,  which 
flows  quickly  from  any  wounds'of  the  skin,  he  will  find  dry 
sand  a  tolerable  substitute. 

If,  however,  after  every  precaution,  the  oily  matter  should 
get  on  the  feathers,  the  sooner  it  is  removed  the  better,  as,  in 
birds  where  the  plumage  is  white,  if  it  is  allowed  to  become 
hardened  it  will  produce  a  very  disagreeable  appearance ;  and, 
besides,  render  that  part  particularly  liable  to  the  attack  of 
insects.  There  are  several  effectual  methods  of  removing  the 
greasy  stains ;  the  first,  safest,  and  best  is,  by  taking  a  quan- 
tity of  diluted  ox-gall — or,  where  it  cannot  be  commanded, 
sheep's-gall,  or  that  of  any  other  animal — mix  it  with  about 
double  the  quantity  of  water,  and  apply  it  with  a  sponge  to 
the  place  which  the  fatty  matter  has  touched,  when  it  will 


SKINNINd.  221 

immediately  remove  it.  The  next  is  by  using  a  solution  of 
salts  of  tartar,  or  potash,  or  soda.  This  must  be  made  very 
weak,  not  exceeding  half  a  teaspoonful  to  a  cup  of  water, 
which  will  have  the  same  effect  as  the  gall.  Whichever  of 
these  are  used,  the  place  must  be  immediately  afterwards 
washed  in  pure  water,  so  as  to  leave  none  of  the  gall  or  alkaline 
substance  remaining.  The  gall  has  a  gummy  tendency,  and 
will  glue  together  the  fibers  of  the  feathers,  and,  besides,  it 
has  a  great  attraction  for  moisture,  and,  in  humid  weather, 
will  become  damp,  and  therefore  produce  mould ;  the  other 
alkaline  substances  must  also  be  used  with  much  caution  and 
quickness,  because  they  have  the  power  of  changing  the  colors 
of  the  plumage,  so  that  they  are  most  useful  in  white  plumage, 
and  therefore  should  only  be  used  on  colored  feathers,  where 
gall  cannot  be  procured. 

One  general  observation  applies  to  the  preservation  of  all 
animal  skins,  which  is,  they  must  be  made  perfectly  dry,  so 
that  the  sooner  they  are  exposed  to  a  free  current  of  air  the 
better;  and  unless  they  are  speedily  and  thoroughly  dried,  the 
skin  will  become  putrid  and  rotten,  and  the  hair  or  feathers 
will  consequently  fall  off.  If  a  skin  is  properly  dried,  soon 
after  it  is  killed,  it  will  keep  a  considerable  time  without  any 
preservative  whatever,  only  it  will  be  the  more  liable  to  be 
attacked  by  insects  afterwards. 

The  following  excellent  general  directions  for  skinning  are 
given  by  Mr.  "Waterton: — "  While  dissecting,  it  will  be  of  use 
to  keep  in  mind,  that  in  taking  off  the  skin  from  the  body, 
by  means  of  your  fingers  and  little  knife,  you  must  try  to 
shove  it,  in  lieu  of  pulling  it,  lest  you  stretch  it. 

"  That  yon  must  press  as  lightly  as  possible  on  the  bird, 
and  every  now  and  then  take  a  view  of  it,  to  see  that  the 
feathers,  etc.,  are  all  right. 

"That  when  you  come  to  the  head,  you  must  take  care 
that  the  body  of  the  skin  rest  on  your  knee,  for  if  you  allow  it  to 
dangle  from  your  hand,  its  own  weight  will  stretch  it  too  much. 


222  TAXIDERMY. 

"  That,  throughout  the  whole  operation,  as  fast  as  you  de- 
tach the  skin  from  the  body,  you  must  put  cotton  immediately 
betwixt  the  body  and  it,  and  this  will  effectually  prevent  any 
fat,  blood,  or  moisture,  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  plum- 
age. 

"As  you  can  seldom  get  a  bird  without  shooting  it,  a  line 
or  two  on  this  head  will  be  necessary.  If  the  bird  be  still 
alive,  press  it  hard  with  your  finger  and  thumb,  just  behind 
the  wings,  and  it  will  soon  expire.  Carry  it  by  the  legs,  and 
then,  the  body  being  reversed,  the  blood  cannot  escape  down 
the  plumage  and  through  the  shot-holes.  As  blood  will  hare 
often  issued  out,  before  you  have  laid  hold  of  the  bird,  find 
out  the  shot-holes,  by  dividing  the  feathers  with  your  fingers, 
and  blowing  on  them;  and  then,  with  your  pen-knife,  or  the 
leaf  of  a  tree,  carefully  remove  the  clotted  blood,  and  put  a 
little  cotton  on  the  hole.  If,  after  all,  the  plumage  has  not 
escaped  the  marks  of  blood,  or  if  it  has  imbibed  slime  from 
the  ground,  wash  the  part  in  water,  without  soap,  and  keep 
gently  agitating  the  feathers  with  your  fingers,  till  they  are 
quite  dry.  Were  you  to  wash  them,  and  leave  them  dry  by 
themselves,  they  would  have  a  very  mean  and  shriveled  ap- 
pearance. 

"In  the  act  of  skinning  a  bird,  you  must  either  have  it 
upon  a  table,  or  upon  your  knee;  probably  you  will  prefer 
your  knee,  because,  when  you  cross  one  knee  over  the  other, 
and  have  the  bird  upon  the  uppermost,  you  can  raise  it  to 
your  eye,  or  lower  it,  at  pleasure,  by  means  of  the  foot  on  the 
ground  ;  and  then  your  knee  will  always  move  in  unison  with 
your  body,  by  which  much  stooping  will  be  avoided,  and  las- 
situde prevented." 

Stuffing  Birds.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  stuffing  is 
to  replace  the  skull,  after  it  haa  been  well  anointed  with  the 
arsenical  soap,  and  washed  with  the  solution  of  corrosiv*  sub- 
limate inside.  The  thread,  with  which  the  beak  is  tied,  is 


STUFFING  BIRDS.  223 

taken  hold  of  by  the  left  hand,  and  the  head  is  repassed  into 
the  neck  with  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  while  the 
thread  is  pulled  on  the  opposite  side;  and  we  are  careful  that 
the  feathers,  at  the  margin  of  the  opening,  do  not  enter  with 
the  edges  of  the  skin.  The  bird  is  now  laid  on  the  table  with 
the  head  turned  towards  the  left  hand,  and  the  legs  and  wings 
adjusted  to  their  proper  situation.  A  flat  piece  of  lead,  about 
a  pound  in  weight,  is  laid  on  the  tail,  while  the  feathers  of 
the  margins  of  the  opening  are  raised  by  the  forefinger  and 
thumb  of  the  left  hand,  to  prevent  their  being  soiled.  The 
inside  of  the  neck  is  now  coated  with  the  arsenical  soap;  flax 
is  stuffed  into  it,  but  not  too  tightly.  The  back  and  rump 
are  anointed,  and  the  body  should  the.n  be  stuffed  with  tow, 
to  about  a  third  of  the  thickness  required,  so  that  the  wire 
may  have  a  sort  of  cushion  to  rest  on. 

Four  pieces  of  wire  are  then  prepared,  of  the  thickness  pro- 
portionate to  the  size  of  the  bird  to  be  stuffed.  The  center- 
piece should  be  somewhat  longer  than  the  body  of  the  bird. 
At  about  a  fourth  of  its  length  a  small  ring  is  formed,  by  the 
assistance  of  the  round  pincers  or  plyers,  and  the  other  end  is 
pointed  with  a  file.  This  wire  is  oiled  and  introduced  across 
the  skull,  and  passed  into  the  neck,  through  the  center  of  the 
flax  or  tow  with  which  it  is  stuffed,  the  ring  being  situated 
toward  the  anterior  part  of  the  skull,  for  the  purpose  of  receiv- 
ing the  points  of  each  of  the  wires  that  are  passed  through 
the  feet  and  thighs. 

The  following  is  the  mode  in  which  this  performation  is 
effected :  A  hole  is  bored  with  a  bradawl  the  caliber  of  the 
wire  which  it  is  intended  to  use.  The  wire,  which  is  to  con- 
tinue in  the  leg,  is  passed  across  the  knee  and  brought  out 
interiorly,  and,  placing  it  into  the  ring  above  mentioned,  the 
same  operation  is  performed  on  the  other  side.  The  extremi- 
ties of  the  wires  of  the  legs,  and  the  end  of  the  central  wire 
beyond  the  ring,  are  all  twisted  together  with  flat  pincers,  and 
then  bent  towards  the  tail.  The  tail-bearer  is  next  formed, 


224  TAXIDERMY. 

which  consists  of  the  fourth  piece  of  wire,  with  which  an  oval 
is  formed,  by  twisting  the  two  ends  two  or  three  turns,  so 
that  they  may  form  a  kind  of  fork,  with  the  oval  nearly  the 
length  of  the  body  of  the  bird;  the  two  points  of  the  fork  must 
be  sharpened  with  a  file,  and  near  enough  to  enable  them  to 
enter  the  rump,  through  which  they  must  pass,  and  their 
points  will  be  concealed  by  the  rectrices,  or  large  straight  tail 
feathers,  while  the  oval  is  within  the  body  of  the  bird.  If  the 
bird  is  large,  the  tail-bearer  must  be  firmly  attached  to  the 
interior  wires,  by  twisting  a  small  wire  several  times  round 
both.  But  unless  the  bird  be  very  large,  it  may  remain 
quite  free. 

All  the  parts  of  the  skin  at  which  we  can  come  must  be 
thoroughly  rubbed  with  preserving  soap,  the  rump  in  partic- 
ular, which  should  besides  be  soaked  with  the  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate.  The  stuffing  is  now  proceeded  with,  by 
inserting  chopped  flax  or  tow,  till  it  has  attained  its  proper 
dimensions.  The  skin  is  brought  together  and  sewed  up, 
while  we  take  the  greatest  care  to  separate  the  feathers  at 
every  stitch. 

The  orbits  of  the  eyes  are  next  finished,  by  inserting,  with 
small  forceps  and  a  short  stuffing  stick,  a  small  quantity  of 
chopped  cotton,  while  attention  is  paid  to  round  the  eyelids 
properly.  The  glass  eyes  are  now  inserted,  taking  care  to 
place  them  properly  under  the  eyelids.  But,  before  fixing  the 
eye,  a  little  calcareous  cement  must  be  used,  to  prevent  them 
from  coming  out.  If  any  part  of  the  nictitating  membrane 
is  visible  below,  it  must  be  pushed  up  with  the  steel  point. 

The  stuffing  of  the  bird  being  now  completed,  the  next 
thing  is  to  place  it  either  on  a  branch,  or,  if  a  bird  which  does 
not  sit  on  trees,  on  a  piece  of  plank;  whichever  of  these  it  is, 
two  holes  are  bored  for  the  reception  of  the  wires,  which  have 
been  allowed  to  protrude  from  the  soles  of  the  feet,  for  fixing 
the  bird.  (See  fig.  8.)  These,  of  course,  are  pierced  in  such 
situations  as  are  necessary  for  the  attitude  or  position  of  the 


STUFFING  BIRDS.  225 

legs.  The  wires  are  put  through  these  holes,  and  twisted  so 
as  to  secure  the  bird  in  its  position.  The  attitude  of  the 
bird  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  fancy  and  taste  of  the 
operator,  and  ought  to  be  in  conformity  with  the  manners  of 
the  bird  in  a  living  state. 

The  wire  frame-work,  above  described,  is  the  most  simple 
of  any  in  its  construction,  and  is  better  adapted  for  small 
than  large  birds.  Indeed,  it  will  hardly  suit  those  of  the 
larger  species.  The  following  is  another  method  of  construct- 
ing the  framework,  which  may  be  used  either  in  large  or 
small  birds : 

Like  the  former  it  is  constructed  of  four  pieces  of  wire. 
The  center  piece  should  be  double  the  length  of  the  bird;  it 
is  bent  at  a  third  of  its  length  in  an  oval  form,  and  twisted 
two  turns,  the  shortest  end  being  passed  into  the  oval,  and 
then  raised  against  the  longer  end,  so  as  to  produce  a  ring  at 
the  end,  outside  of  the  oval,  large  enough  to  admit  the  two 
wires  which  pass  from  the  feet  to  the  inside  of  the  bird.  It  is 
now  twisted  a  second  time,  and  firmly  united  to  the  longer 
end,  which  ought  to  be  straight,  with  a  sharp  point,  effected 
by  means  of  a  file.  As  before  directed,  it  is  rubbed  with  oil, 
and  forced  through  the  stuffing  of  the  neck.  It  ought  to  be 
so  constructed,  by  measurement,  that  the  oval  part  of  the 
wire  shall  be  in  the  center  of  the  body  inside.  The  wires  of 
the  feet  and  legs,  as  before  directed,  ought  to  be  straight  and 
pointed,  and  passed  through  the  soles  of  the  feet  as  before. 
When  the  point  is  penetrated,  the  other  end  of  the  wire  may 
be  bent,  so  that  by  means  of  it  we  may  be  able  to  assist  in 
forcing  up  the  remainder  of  the  wire.  The  two  internal  ends 
of  the  foot-wires  are  twisted  together,  and  curved  within,  so 
as  to  pass  through  the  small  circle  or  ring  of  the  middle 
branch  above  the  oval,  to  each  side  of  which  they  are  now 
attached  with  a  piece  of  small  string. 

The  tail-bearer  is  constructed  on  the  same  principles,  and 
attached  in  the  same  manner,  as  before  described,  and  the 


226  TAXIDERMY. 

latter  apparatus  is  introduced  after  the  neck  and  back  are 
finished  in  the  stuffing. 

This  practice  of  introducing  the  neck-wire,  after  the  neck  is 
stuffed,  was  first  adopted  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at  Paris, 
and  is  now  invariably  adopted  in  that  establishment  in  prefer- 
ence to  introducing  it  before  the  neck  is  stuffed.  The  neck 
of  a  swan  or  other  long-necked  and  large  birds,  are  even  done 
so.  It  is  unquestionably  the  best  plan  which  has  hitherto 
been  discovered,  as  it  preserves  the  cylindrical  shape  of  the 
neck. 

Mr.  Bullock's  Method  of  Stuffing  Birds.  Mr.  Bullock, 
of  the  London  Museum,  Egyptian  Hall,  had  another  method 
of  arranging  the  wires  which,  after  what  we  have  already  said, 
will  be  easily  comprehended  by  a  reference  to  Fig.  8,  where 
we  have  given  a  figure  of  his  mode.  After  the  skin  is  taken 
off  and  prepared,  different  sized  nealed  iron  wires  are  pro- 
cured, according  to  the  size  of  the  bird  they  are  to  support. 
The  skin  is  laid  on  its  back  without  stretching  it ;  cut  two 
pieces  of  wire,  the  one  rather  longer  than  the  bird,  and  the 
other  shorter,  so  as  not  to  reach  to  the  head  of  the  bird,  twist 
them  together,  sharpen  the  ends  of  the  longer  by  means  of  a 
file,  and  pass  on*  end  through  the  rump  and  the  other 
through  the  crown  of  the  head,  near  the  base  of  the  bill. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  extend  the  neck  beyond  its  ordinary 
length — a  very  common  fault  in  most  preservers.  Lay  a  little 
tow  along  the  back  of  the  skin  for  the  wire  to  rest  on,  then  take 
two  other  pieces  of  strong  wire  and  file  them  to  a  point  at  one 
end;  these  are  passed  through  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  up  the 
center  of  the  leg-bone,  or  tarsus.  When  within  the  body, 
they  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  first  wires  by  twisting  them 
together,  which,  when  accomplished,  may  be  supposed  to 
represent  the  back  bone.  The  wire  should  be  left  two  or 
three  inches  out  of  the  soles  of  the  feet,  to  fasten  them  in  a 
standing  position,  as  before  directed.  Two  smaller  wires  are 


STUFFING  BIRDS.  227 

then  passed  through  the  wings,  as  in  the  legs,  and  afterwards 
fastened  to  the  back  wires  a  little  higher  up  than  the  leg 
wires,  taking  care  that  no  part  of  the  skin  is  to  be  extended 
beyond  its  natural  position. 

A  New  and  Easier  Method  of  Bird  Skinning  and  Stuff- 
ing. A  fair  specimen  being  obtained,  take  common  cotton  wad- 
ding, and  with  an  ordinary  paint-brush  stick  plug  the  throat, 
nostrils,  and,  in  large  birds,  the  ears,  with  it,  so  that  when  the 
skin  is  turned  no  juices  may  flow  and  spoil  the  feathers  ;  you 
must  then  provide  yourself  with  the  following  articles :  A 
knife  of  this  kind,  which  is  very  common  ;  a  pair  of  cutting 
plyers,  a  pair  of  strong  scissors,  of  a  moderate  size ;  a  button- 
hook, a  marrow  spoon,  and  a  hand-vice.  With  these,  a  needle 
and  thread,  and  a  sharpener  of  some  kind,  to  give  your  knife 
an  occasional  touch,  you  are  prepared,  so  far  as  implements 
go.  Then  provide  yourself  with  annealed  iron  wire  of  various 
sizes;  some  you  may  buy  ready  for  use,  some  not;  but  you  can 
anneal  it  yourself  by  making  it  red  hot  in  the  fire,  and  letting  it 
cool  in  the  air.  Common  hemp  is  the  next  article,  cotton  wad- 
ding, pounded  whitening,  and  pounded  alum,  or  chloride  of 
lime;  as  to  the  poisons  which  are  used,  they  will  be  spoken  of 
by  and  by.  You  should  also  have  a  common  bradawl  or  two, 
and  some  pieces  of  quarter-inch  pine  whereon  to  stand  the 
specimens  when  preserved,  if  to  be  placed  as  walking  on  a 
plane;  if  not,  some  small  pieces  of  twigs  or  small  branches  of 
trees  should  be  kept  ready  for  use,  of  various  sizes,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  bird.  Cedar,  or  common  laurel  cut  in 
December,  will  be  found  to  answer  best,  but  this  must  be 
regulated  by  fancy  and  the  requirements  of  the  case ;  oak 
boughs  are  sometimes  of  good  shape. 

The  best  time  for  preserving  specimens  is  in  spring,  because 
then  the  cock  birds  are  in  the  best  feather,  and  the  weather  is 
not  too  warm.  In  mild  weather  three  days  is  a  good  time  to 
keep  a  bird,  as  then  the  skin  will  part  from  the  flesh  easily. 


228  TAXIDERMY. 

If  a  specimen  has  bled  much  over  the  feathers,  so  as  to  dam- 
age them,  wash  them  carefully  but  thoroughly  with  warm 
water  and  a  sponge,  and  immediately  cover  them  with 
pounded  whitening,  which  will  adhere  to  them.  Dry  it  as 
it  hangs  upon  them  slowly  before  the  fire,  and  then  triturat- 
ing the  hardened  lumps  gently  between  the  fingers,  the 
feathers  will  come  out  almost  as  clean  as  ever.  To  tast 
whether  the  specimen  is  too  decomposed  to  skin,  try  the 
feathers  about  the  auriculars,  and  just  above  the  tail,  and  if 
they  do  not  move  you  may  safely  proceed. 

Lay  the  bird  on  his  back,  and,  parting  the  feathers  from  the 
insertion  of  the  neck  to  the  tail,  you  will  find  in  most  birds  a 
spare  space.  Cut  the  skin  the  whole  length  of  this,  and 
passing  the  finger  under  it  on  either  side,  by  laying  hold  of 
one  leg  and  bending  it  forward,  you  will  be  able  to  bring  the 
bare  knee  through  the  opening  you  have  made ;  with  your 
scissors  cut  it  through  at  the  joint;  pull  the  shank  still  adher. 
ing  to  the  leg  till  the  skin  is  turned  back  as  far  as  it  will  go; 
denude  the  bone  of  flesh  and  sinew,  wrap  a  piece  of  hemp 
round  it,  steep  in  a  strong  solution  of  the  pounded  alum,  and 
then  pull  the  leg  by  the  claw,  by  which  means  the  skin  will 
be  brought  again  to  its  place. 

After  having  served  both  legs  alike,  skin  carefully  round 
the  back,  cutting  off  and  leaving  in  the  tail  with  that  into 
which  the  feathers  grow,  that  is,  the  "Pope's  nose."  Serve 
the  wing  bones  the  same  as  the  leg,  cutting  them  off  close  to 
the  body,  and  turn  the  skin  inside  out  down  to  the  head. 
The  back  of  the  skull  will  then  appear,  and  you  will  now  find 
it  of  advantage,  as  soon  as  you  have  got  the  legs  and  tail  free, 
to  tie  a  piece  of  string  round  the  body,  and  hang  it  up  as  a 
butcher  skins  a  sheep.  Make  in  the  back  of  the  skull  a  cut 
with  your  knife,  which  you  can  turn  back  like  a  trap-door, 
and  with  the  marrow-spoon  entirely  clear  out  the  brains; 
Having  done  this,  wash  the  interior  of  the  skull  thoroughly 
with  the  alum,  and  fill  it  with  cotton  wadding.  The 


STUFFING  BIRDS.  229 

next  operation  requires  care  and  practice — namely,  to  get 
out  the  eyes.  This  is  done  by  cutting  cautiously  until 
the  lids  appear,  being  careful  not  to  cut  the  eye  itself,  and 
you  can  then,  with  a  forceps,  which  you  will  likewise  find 
useful,  pull  each  from  its  socket;  wipe  the  orifice  carefully, 
wash  it  with  the  alum  solution,  and  fill  it  with  cotton  wad- 
ding. Cut  off  the  neck  close  to  the  skull,  wash  the  stump, 
and  the  whole  of  the  interior  of  the  skin  with  the  alum,  and 
the  skinning  is  done.  Now  comes  the  stuffing.  The  ordinary 
mode  used  by  bird-preservers  is  a  simple  one,  and  answers 
very  well;  there  is  a  French  method,  however,  which  has  its 
advantages,  and  will  be  adverted  to  hereafter.  Take  a  piece 
of  the  wire  suitable  to  the  size  of  the  bird  (Fig.  11) — that  is,  as 
large  as  the  legs  will  carry — and  bend  it  into  the  following  form, 
a  representing  the  neck,  J,  the  body,  and  c,  the  junction  of  the 
tail,  allowing  sufficient  length  of  neck  for  the  wire  lo  pass 
some  distance  beyond  the  head,  and  being  sharpened  at  each 
end,  which  may  be  done  by  obliquely  cutting  it  with  the  ply- 
ers.  Wind  upon  this  wire  hemp  to  the  size  of  the  bird's  body, 
which  you  should  have  lying  by  you  to  judge  from,  and  it  will 
present  something  of  the  appearance  of  Fig.  12.  You  can  shape  it 
with  the  hand,  but  be  careful  not  to  make  it  the  least  too  large; 
and,  after  you  have  finished  it  to  your  satisfaction,  'you  may 
singe  it,  as  the  poulterer  would  singe  a  fowl,  which  will  make 
all  neat;  but  be  particular  to  wind  the  hemp  very  tight.  Then 
take  the  skin,  lay  it  on  the  table  on  its  back,  and  pass  the  wire 
at  the  head  into  the  marrow  where  the  neck  is  cut  off,  through 
above  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  out  at  one  nostril,  and  draw 
it  up  close  to  the  skull;  turn  the  skin  back,  and  draw  it  down 
over  the  hemp  body,  and  pass  the  wire  spike,  protruding  at 
the  lower  end,  through  the  flesh  upon  which  the  tail  grows, 
about  the  centre,  and  rather  below  than  above.  The  skin 
may  now  be  adjusted  to  the  hemp  body,  and  sown  up,  begin- 
ning from  the  top  of  the  breast,  and  being  particularly  careful 
always  to  take  the  stitch  from  inside,  otherwise  you  will  draw 


230  TAXIDERMY. 

in  the  feathers  at  every  pull.     At  first  sew  it  very  loose,  and 
then,  with  the  button-hook,  draw  it  together  by  degrees. 

With  the  plyers  cut  two  lengths  of  wire,  long  enough  to 
pass  up.  the  legs  and  into  the  neck,  and  leave  something  over 
to  fasten  the  bird  by  to  the  board  or  spray  upon  which  it  is  to 
be  placed.  The  next  operation  requires  some  address  and 
great  practice,  namely,  the  passing  the  wire  up  the  legs.  This 
is  done  by  forcing  it  into  the  center  of  the  foot,  and  up  the 
back  of  the  legs,  into  the  hemp  body,  through  it  obliquely, 
and  into  the  neck,  until  it  is  pretty  firm.  In  doing  this,  you 
must  remember  the  ordinary  position  of  a  bird  when  alive, 
and,  therefore,  instead  of  passing  the  wire  the  whole  way 
within  the  skin  of  the  leg,  when  you  get  to  the  part  whore  you 
have  cut  off  the  bone,  that  is,  the  knee- joint,  pass  it  through 
the  skin  to  the  outside,  and  in  again,  through  the  skin,  from 
the  outside,  where  the  knee  would  come  naturally  in  the  atti- 
tude of  standing  or  perching — it  makes  little  difference  which. 
This  is  essential,  because,  if  the  wire  be  passed  the  whole  way 
inside  the  skin,  it  produces  a  wrong  placing  of  the  legs.  Fig. 
13  will  illustrate  this,  a  representing  the  line  in  which  the  wire 
should  run.  The  bird  is  now  stuffed,  and  you  may  at  once 
place  it  upon  a  spray  or  board,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  placing 
a  bird  upon  a  spray,  the  first  joint  should  be  bent  almost  on  a 
level  with  the  foot;  and,  in  placing  a  bird  on  a  board,  one  leg 
ehould  be  placed  somewhat  behind  the  other.  If  the  wings 
are  intended  to  be  closed,  as  is  usually  the  case,  bring  them 
into  their  place,  which  may  be  done  by  putting  the  fingers 
under  them,  and  pressing  them  together  over  the  back;  you 
may  then  pass  a  needle,  or  large  pin,  of  which  you  should 
have  a  good  supply  by  you,  through  the  thick  part  of  the 
upper  wing  into  the  body,  and  so  by  the  lower  wing,  and  if 
you  allow  these  to  protrude,  you  may  fasten  to  one  of  them  a 
piece  of  thread,  and  wind  it  carefully  and  lightly  round  the 
body,  which  will  keep  the  feathers  in  their  places,  and  this 
thread  should  be  kept  on  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  until 


STUFFING  BIRDS.  231 

the  bird  is  dry.     The  tail  should  be  kept  in  its  place,  also,  for 
the  same  time,  by  a  piece  of  thin  wire  bent  over  it. 

The  only  thing  now  to  do  is  to  put  in  the  eyes.  The  color,  of 
course,  depends  on  the  bird,  and  these  you  may  buy  at  any 
fishing-tackle  store.  If  you  do  not  use  eyes  too  large,  you 
will  find  little  difficulty;  the  juice  of  the  lids  will  act  as  a 
sufficient  cement.  As  to  the  mounting,  I  shall  say  nothing 
about  that  now,  but  shall  only  advert  shortly  to  a  French 
method  of  preserving,  which  is  more  difficult,  but  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  superior  firmness.  It  is  this:  Measuring  from  the 
insertion  of  the  neck  to  the  tail,  make  a  wire  frame.  Upon 
this  wind  hemp  for  the  neck  only,  and  place  in  the  skin  in 
the  same  way  as  before  directed,  only  that,  instead  of  one  wire 
being  passed  through  that  in  which  the  tail  grows,  it  is  a  fork 
that  is  passed  through  it.  Having  formed  this  frame,  fit  on 
to  it  two  legs,  and  after  the  frame  itself  is  in  the  skin,  pass 
these  from  the  inside  down  each  leg,  instead  of  from  the  out- 
side, and  fasten  them  on  to  the  frame  with  the  plyers,  by 
twisting  the  ends  round  the  frame.  This  will  make  all  firm, 
and  you  can  then  fill  the  body  with  cut  hemp,  and  sew  up. 
One  word  as  to  the  other  preparations  used  by  bird  preservers. 
These  are  either  corrosive  sublimate  or  regulus  of  arsenic, 
which  is  yellow  and  of  a  consistence  like  butter.  As  I  have 
said  before,  in  cold  weather,  when  there  are  no  flies  about, 
alum  will  do  perfectly  well;  in  warm  weather  either  of  the  two 
others  may  be  used.  I  should  prefer  the  former — corrosive 
sublimate — as  the  other  is  "  messy,"  and  the  chief  object  is  to 
dry  up  anything  which  can  be  attacked  by  flesh-seeking  insects. 
When  you  have  finished  your  bird,  you  can  lay  the  feathers 
with  a  large  needle — it  is  as  well  to  have  one  fixed  in  a  handle 
and  kept  for  this  purpose — and,  tying  the  two  mandibles  of 
the  bill  together  with  a  piece  of  thread  until  the  whole  speci» 
men  has  hardened  and  dried,  the  work  is  done, 


232  TAXIDERMY. 


THE  ART  OP  MOUNTING  BIRDS,  DRIED  SKINS,  FEATHERS, 

ETC. 


MOUNTING  IN  GENERAL. 

E  will  suppose  that  a  proficiency,  from  practice,  has 
!>.  been  attained  in  the  art  of  bird-preserving,  according 
to  the  instructions  given.  The  proficiency  in  preserv- 
ing may  apply  only  to  the  preservation  and  the  form,  great 
and  necessary  things,  no  doubt,  as  preliminaries;  but,  like 
matter  without  manner,  of  little  avail  alone.  For  attitude,  I 
would  say,  as  has  been  said  to  many  a  young  artist,  go  to 
Nature,  and  there  you  will  find  an  original  in  perfection. 
Would  you  make  a  willow- wren  look  like  a  willow-wren,  watch 
him  as  he  there  hangs  upon  the  weeping  birch,  or  stands  on  a 
bough  peering  in  quest  of  food?  Each  bird  has  its  own  man- 
ner>  and  if  you  cannot  hit  the  manner,  or  make  your  stuffed 
skin  so  far  amenable  as  to  assume  the  attitude,  it  is  either  ill- 
stuffed,  or  you  want  the  requisite  knowledge  of  that  which 
you  should  copy. 

Bird  Pinned  Up.  Having  fixed  on  the  attitude,  it  now 
only  remains  to  put  the  feathers  into  their  natural  order  as 
smoothly  and  regularly  as  possible;  and  to  keep  them  in  this 
state  they  should  be  bound  around  with  small  fillets  of  muslin 
fastened  with  pins.  The  bird  should  then  be  thoroughly 
dried,  by  placing  it  in  an  airy  situation,  if  in  summer;  or  if 
in  winter,  near  the  fire,  but  not  so  close  as  to  affect  the  natural 
oil  contained  in  the  feathers.  The  want  of  proper  attention 
in  drying  ruins  many  a  fine  specimen;  if  long  kept  damp 
putridity  ensues  despite  all  preservatives,  when  the  skin  will 
become  rotten,  and  the  feathers  will  soon  fall  off;  besides,  the 
mold  and  long-continued  damp  change  the  chemical  properties 
pf  the  preservatives  u$ed. 


MOUNTING  IN  GENERAL.  233 

After  the  bird  has  been  thoroughly  dried,  the  fillets  are 
removed;  the  wire  which  protruded  from  the  head  is  cut  off 
as  close  to  the  skull  as  possible,  with  the  wire-cutting  pincers 
elsewhere  shown.  It  must  then  be  attached  to  a  circular,  or 
other  shaped  piece  of  wood,  with  the  generic  and  specific 
name  and  sex,  as  well  as  its  country  and  locality  attached  to 
it,  on  a  small  ticket,  when  it  may  be  placed  in  a  museum. 

Young  hands  commonly  suppose  that  a  bird  should  stand 
bolt  upright,  with  the  legs  almost  perpendicular,  .or  at  right 
angles  to  the  perch.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  and  never  to  be 
found  in  nature.  Do  we  stand  rigid,  like  a  foot-soldier  on 
drill?  Does  not  a  bird,  as  well  as  ourselves,  accommodate 
itself  to  the  thing  on  which  it  rests?  Assuredly  it  does;  for 
birds  do  not,  as  a  young  bird-stuffer  endeavors  to  do,  find 
always  a  perch  to  rest  upon  in  the  plane  of  the  horizon.  It 
therefore  follows  that,  as  he  keeps  himself  upright,  his  legs 
must  accommodate  themselves  to  his  perch.  So  in  the  ground- 
birds  there  is  a  gentle  slope  backwards  from  the  hind  toe,  the 
balance  being  preserved  in  both  cases  by  throwing  the  body 
forward  in  proportion.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  birds  pre- 
served with  wings  and  tail  spread.  J\row,  ordinarily  speaking, 
this  is  very  objectionable,  because  very  unnatural.  A  bird 
preserved  is  supposed  to  represent  a  bird  in  a  state  of  repose, 
that  is,  not  in  flight;  the  only  modification  allowable  being 
with  regard  to  those  birds  whose  manner  it  may  be  to  have 
the  wings  more  or  less  open  on  occasions;  thus  the  falcon  tribe, 
supposing  they  are  represented  as  devouring  a  quarry,  or  two 
birds  toying  with  each  other.  It  may  be  that  a  bird  essentially 
aerial,  like  the  wift,  or  perhaps  some  of  the  terns  or  the  frigate 
bird,  may  be  represented  as  actually  on  the  wing.  In  this 
case,  of  course,  the  wings  must  be  spread;  and  this  is  best 
done  by  passing  a  wire,  not  too  thick,  from  the  base  of  the 
quill-feathers  on  the  under  side,  alongside  the  bone  into  the 
body,  where  it  should  be  carefully  and  coaxingly  inserted  to- 
wards the  tail  until  you  feel  that  you  have  a  pretty  good  hold, 


234  TAXIDERMY. 

You  may  then  pass  it  carefully  under  the  longest  quill-feather, 
and  through  the  back  of  the  case,  and  fasten  it  by  bringing  it 
back  again  through  and  clinching  it,  concealing  it  so  by  the 
oblique  position  of  the  bird  that  it  is  not  detectable.  It  is 
obvious  that  by  passing  the  wire  alongside  the  bone,  you  may 
bend  the  wings  to  any  angle  you  please.  With  regard  to  the 
case  there  are  two  methods:  one  a  bell-glass,  which,  glass  being 
now  so  reasonable,  is  certainly  a  very  pretty  and  reasonable 
way  of  mounting,  but  inapplicable  to  birds  which  are  to  be 
placed  on  a  wall,  or  to  be  represented  flying;  although  this 
may  be  managed  by  attaching  one  wire  from  the  point  of  the 
wing  to  a  twig  sufficiently  firm,  which  it  will  scarcely  appear 
to  touch,  if  managed  adroitly.  It  is  likewise  indispensable 
that  a  bird  for  a  shade  should  be  stuffed  so  well  as  to  look 
nicely  in  all  positions.  One  thing  must  always  be  remembered, 
do  not  have  your  case  a  shade  too  large,  just  clear  the  object  so 
as  not  to  stint  it  for  room;  and  in  flat  cases  this  applies  chiefly 
to  depth,  for  it  should  have  sufficient  light,  or  it  will  not  look 
well.  Wooden  cases  should  be  made  as  slight  (in  thickness) 
as  is  consistent  with  firmness;  well-seasoned  white  deal  is  best; 
and  the  case  should  be  formed  of  back,  top  and  bottom,  open 
at  the  front  and  sides,  and  at  each  corner  of  the  front  two 
slight  deal  supports,  rabbited  on  their  inner  edges,  and  pre- 
senting on  the  whole  a  good  appearance. 

Having  the  case  prepared,  it  should  be  papered  with  ordi- 
nary demy  paper  on  the  top  and  back  within,  and,  when  the 
paste  is  dry,  washed  over  carefully  with  size  and  whitening, 
tinted  with  a  little  stone-blue;  some  add  some  touches  of  white 
subsequently  to  represent  clouds,  the  ground  representing  the 
air;  some  also  paste  a  landscape  on  the  back,  but  this  must  be 
good,  or  you  had  better  have  plain  color.  The  bird  to  be 
placed  in  this  case  is  either  perching,  standing,  or  flying.  For 
the  latter,  directions  have  been  given.  As  to  the  two  former, 
the  perch  must  be  firmly  fixed  in  the  small  piece  of  flat  wood 
upon  which  it  previously  stood,  and  put  in  upon  it,  the  wood 


MOUNTING  IN  GENERAL.  235 

being  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  case,  either  by  screwing 
from  below,  from  above,  or  gluing  with  stout  glue,  or  by  pass- 
ing wire  through  two  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  case  and  the 
wood,  and  clinching  above.  In  this  case,  or  in  screwing  from 
below,  let  the  wire  or  the  screw  into  the  wood,  and  putty  over, 
and  so  if  the  bird  is  represented  standing.  The  bird  being 
fixed,  the  next  thing  is  the  decorating  or  "  weeding,"  as  it  is 
technically  called,  and  here  we  enter  upon  a  subject  so  entirely 
of  taste  and  fancy,  that  no  fixed  rules  as  to  the  disposition  can 
in  all  cases  be  given.  One  rule  applies  equally  to  this  as  to 
landscape  painting,  viz.,  that  there  should  always  be  a  com- 
pensation of  objects.  That  is,  if  you  have  a  tuft  of  grass  on 
one  side  which  rises  towards  the  top  of  the  case,  there  should 
be  something  in  the  lower  opposite  corner  to  strike  the  eye, 
but  not  to  rise  above  midway  up  at  the  furthest,  and  the 
ground,  or  floor,  should  not  be  overfurnished  with  mosses, 
etc.  After  the  bird  is  fixed,  the  whole  bottom  should  be  care- 
fully glued  over  with  thin  glue,  taking  care,  where  the  bird's 
feet  are  on  the  bottom,  not  to  touch  the  toes  with  the  glue. 
Some  fine-sifted  sand  or  gravel  should  then  be  sifted  over  it, 
and  it  will  adhere  wherever  the  glue  has  touched;  for  this 
purpose  a  small  tin  shovel  is  best,  about  two  inches  wide  by 
four  long,  with  a  handle  in  proportion,  which  can  be  made  to 
order  at  any  tinman's  for  a  trifle. 

Everything  used  in  "  weeding"  should  be  baked  in  a  slow 
oven,  otherwise  spider's  eggs  and  minute  creatures,  which  are 
pretty  sure  to  be  contained  in  it,  will  make  their  appearance 
after  the  case  is  closed  in  the  disagreeable  form  of  destroying 
your  specimen.  Moss,  etc.,  by  being  slowly  dried,  will  also 
keep  its  color  better.  Yellow  moss,  found  on  the  roofs  of  old 
barns,  and  dark  gray  of  the  same  species,  are  very  generally 
useful;  and  where  yellow  moss  cannot  be  had,  the  white  or 
gray  may  be  colored  with  chrome,  and  looks  as  well.  Water 
plants  fade,  being  more  or  less  succulent,  and  hence  a  little 
common  water-color  with  gum  will  be  used  with  advantage 


236  TAXIDERMY. 

and  look  less  artificial  than  oil  plant,  which  is  often  used. 
Fern  looks  very  pretty  as  an  adjunct  for  heath-birds,  but  it 
should  be  dried  gradually  and  carefully,  when  quite  full 
grown,  and  a  small  touch  of  light  green,  permanent  white 
forming  a  portion  of  it,  will  give  it  a  freshness  and  more 
natural  appearance.  Grass  in  s,eed  (not  in  flower)  of  various 
kinds  is  also  a  very  pretty  addition;  but  bird  preservers  have 
a  habit  of  using  dyed  grass,  and  yellow  and  red  Xerantliy- 
mum,  or  Everlasting,  which  is  certainly  to  be  avoided,  and 
indeed  anything  which  is  unnatural.  If  it  is  wished  to  intro- 
duce a  lump  of  earth,  or  an  apparent  bank,  a  piece  of  thick 
brown  paper,  bent  to  the  requisite  shape,  and  glued  over  and 
covered  with  sifted  sand  or  gravel,  has  a  very  good  effect;  but 
insects  and  butterflies,  or  artificial  flowers,  unless  they  are 
extremely  natural,  should  certainly  be  avoided.  Regard 
should  also  be  had  to  the  season  at  which  the  bird  is  usually 
seen.  For  instance,  summer  birds  are,  of  course,  surrounded 
by  green  and  living  objects,  but  autumn  or  winter  visitants 
by  decaying  or  dead  herbage.  It  has  often  been  made  an  ex- 
periment to  represent  snow,  but  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  any- 
thing white  enough,  and  at  the  same  time  of  a  crystalline 
character,  which,  of  course,  it  should  be.  Potato  farina 
nicely  dried,  mixed  with  Epsom  salts  pounded  very  fine,  does 
not  make  a  bad  substitute;  but  the  real  difficulty  lies  behind, 
namely,  in  fixing  it,  and,  more  than  all,  the  least  damp  takes 
very  much  from  its  appearance,  if  it  does  not  destroy  the 
effect,  and  hence  we  must  have  recourse  to  mineral  aid,  and 
any  very  white  mineral  powder  mingled  with  pounded  glass 
is  perhaps  best.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  herbage 
upon  which  it  is  meant  to  rest  should  be  touched  all  over  with 
paste,  not  glue,  and  the  white  mixture  shaken  over  and  left 
to  dry.  What  will  heighten  the  effect  very  much,  if  prettily 
executed,  is  a  black  landscape  with  a  dark  leaden  sky  and 
nearly  black  earth  mingled  with  moss.  To  represent  water,  a 
piece  of  looking-glass,  surrounded  by  moss,  etc.,  answers  very 


MOUNTING  DRIED  SKINS.  237 

well.  The  bills  and  legs  of  birds  should  be  always  varnished, 
and  where  the  natural  color  fades  after  death  it  should  be 
restored  by  a  thin  coat  of  oil-color  of  the  required  shade.  The 
bird  being  fixed  and  the  case  garnished,  nothing  remains  but 
to  put  in  the  glass;  this  is  in  three  pieces,  one  for  the  front 
and  a  piece  at  each  end.  This  can  be  pasted  in  with  very 
strong  paper  round  the  edge,  advancing  sufficiently  over  the 
glass  to  hold  it.  In  doing  this  it  is  not  necessary  to  be  very 
particular  to  avoid  pasting  the  glass,  as  after  it  is  dried  it  can 
be  wiped  clean  with  a  damp  cloth.  The  last  operation  is  a 
very  simple  one,  and  done  in  a  few  minutes.  You  must  pro- 
cure some  black  spirit-varnish,  which  you  can  make  yourself 
by  dissolving  the  best  black  sealing-wax  in  spirits  of  wine,  and 
should  be  kept  corked;  when  this  is  good  it  acts  as  paint  and 
varnish  at  the  same  time,  and  dries  as  fast  as  it  is  put  on.  One 
or  two  brass  rings  screwed  on  at  the  top  of  the  back  of  the  case 
will  finish  the  bird,  and  if  the  case  be  nicely  and  closely  made, 
there  is  no  limit  of  time  to  which  the  preservation  of  the  speci- 
men may  not  extend. 

Method  of  Mounting  Dried  Skins.  "We  must  now  say 
something  respecting  the  setting  up  of  skins  which  have  been 
preserved  by  travelers,  and  sent  home  from  distant  parts. 

The  general  method  is  exactly  the  same  as  in  stuffing  recent 
specimens.  There  are,  however,  some  preliminary  steps, 
which  it  is  necessary  to  know. 

If  the  specimen  sent  home  has  been  partially  stuffed,  our 
first  business  is  to  undo  the  stitches,  if  it  has  been  sewed — 
which  was  an  unnecessary  process.  We  then  remove  the 
whole  cotton  or  tow  from  the  inside,  by  the  assistance  of  for- 
ceps, and  from  the  neck  with  a  small  piece  of  wire,  twisted  or 
hooked  at  the  end.  Having  finished  this,  small  balls  of  wet 
cotton  are  placed  in  the  orbits  of  the  eyes,  and  the  legs  and 
feet  are  wrapped  round  with  wet  cotton  or  linen  rags.  A 
damp  cloth  is  then  thrown  over  the  bird,  and  it  is  allowed  to 


238  TAXIDERMY. 

remain  in  this  state  till  next  day.  The  neck  and  body  are 
then  filled  with  wet  linen  or  cotton,  and  it  will  be  ready  for 
commencing  setting  up  in  four  or  five  hours. 

The  eyes  are  now  put  in,  as  directed  in  the  recent  subjects, 
and  then  stuffed  in  exactly  the  same  manner.  Some  difficulty 
will,  however,  be  experienced  with  respect  to  the  leg-v/ires, 
and  it  will  require  more  time  and  care,  from  the  dryness  of  the 
legs,  to  get  the  wire  to  penetrate.  Having  proceeded  so  far 
as  to  get  the  bird  generally  formed,  the  wings  are  next  adjusted; 
this  also  is  frequently  difficult,  owing  to  the  stiffness  of  the 
tendons,  and  want  of  proper  attention  in  skinning  and  drying 
them  at  first.  Indeed,  with  some  of  the  South  American 
birds,  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  wings  is  found  impracti- 
cable, owing  to  the  attempts  of  the  native  Indians  of  Guyana, 
who  seldom  dispose  them  properly. 

When  these  skins — frequently  exceedingly  valuable  from 
their  rarity — are  undone,  to  be  remounted,  it  is  oftentimes 
found  utterly  impossible  to  get  the  wings  to  take  a  natural 
set,  in  which  case  there  is  no  other  remedy  but  cutting  them 
off  close  to  the  body,  and  fixing  them  anew.  The  scapulars 
are  separated,  they  are  softened  with  damp  cloths,  and  then 
wrapped  up  with  bands  of  sheet  lead,  to  give  them  a  proper 
set.  When  we  have  got  them  in  their  natural  shape,  they 
must  be  fixed  to  the  sides  by  cement  and  cotton,  and  a  long 
pin  through  each,  with  the  head  concealed  amongst  the  feath- 
ers. The  scapulars,  which  we  hare  cut  off,  must  then  be 
cemented  on,  and  they  will  effectually  cover  the  joining  of  the 
wings.  The  bird  being  now  arranged,  and  all  the  feathers 
adjusted,  it  is  wrapped  round  with  small  bands  of  fine  linen 
or  muslin,  and  set  aside  till  thoroughly  dry. 

Should  any  feathers  be  disengaged  during  the  mounting, 
they  must  be  kept,  and,  when  the  bird  is  dry,  we  can  replace 
them  in  their  proper  situations  with  a  pair  of  forceps,  after 
they  have  been  touched  on  their  shafts  with  the  cement;  the 


MOUNTING  OF  BIRDS.  239 

feathers  around  the  place  in  which  we  intend  to  insert  them, 
must  be  held  up  with  the  probing-needle. 

If  any  of  the  feathers  are  deranged  in  mounting,  and  have 
got  a  wrong  set,  the  only  way  to  remedy  the  defect  is  to  pull 
them  out  with  forceps,  and  re-insert  them  with  cement. 

Of  Mounting  Birds,  Feather  by  Feather.  Rare  birds 
are  frequently  received  from  foreign  countries,  the  skins  of 
which  are  in  such  a  state  of  decay,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
mount  them  by  the  ordinary  processes  above  described.  The 
only  way  in  which  they  can  be  preserved,  is  to  mount  them 
feather  by  feather,  which,  however,  is  a  very  tedious  method. 
It  is  as  follows: 

Procure  a  piece  of  soft  pliable  wire,  such  as  is  used  by  bell- 
hangers;  or  take  some  of  the  ordinary  wire  used,  and  make  it 
red-hot  in  the  fire,  and  allow  it  to  cool  gradually,  when  it  will 
become  quite  pliable.  Take  five  pieces  of  this,  of  different 
lengths,  and  form  them  into  the  skeleton  of  a  body;  namely, 
two  for  the  back,  one  on  each  eide,  and  one  to  represent  the 
breast  bone.  Imitate  the  shape  of  the  bird's  body,  as  nearly 
as  possible.  The  wires  must  be  roughened  with  a  file,  at  the 
place  where  all  the  wires  meet,  at  the  neck  and  rump;  and 
first  wrap  the  place  next  the  neck  round  with  strong  thread 
or  fine  brass  wire.  Two  pieces  intended  for  the  back  must 
bend  gently  downwards,  and  be  gradually  separated  from 
each  ether  towards  the  center,  and  brought  together  again  at 
the  place  intended  for  the  rump,  where  they  must  intersect 
each  other,  and  be  twisted  two  or  three  times,  to  keep  them 
in  their  place;  they  are  then  spread  out  as  supports  for  the 
tail;  the  side  pieces  are  next  formed,  so  as  to  represent  the 
natural  bulge  of  a  bird's  body,  and  attached  to  the  rump;  the 
piece  representing  the  breast  is  then  formed,  joined  at  the 
rump,  and  afterwards  continued  as  long  as  the  other  tail- 
pieces, to  support  the  center  of  the  tail;  while  at  the  front 
extremity  a  piece  is  left,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  neck  to 


240  TAXIDERMY. 

which  to  attach  the  head.  The  log-wires  are  attached  to  the 
side-wires,  being  rolled  round  them  for  several  turns,  making 
a  framework  the  shape  of  the  bird. 

After  this  body  has  been  properly  formed,  it  must  be 
wrapped  round  with  tow-sliver,  and  the  neck  thickened  to 
its  required  dimensions.  When  this  is  accomplished,  the 
head,  legs,  wings  and  tail  are  softened  in  the  usual  manner  ; 
the  eyes  are  then  fixed  in  with  some  cotton  introduced  into 
the  orbits,  with  a  little  of  the  cement.  The  wings  and  tail 
are  now  placed  on  a  table,  with  a  flat  leaden  weight  above 
each,  to  restore  them  to  their  natural  shape.  The  leg-wires 
are  then  passed  through  the  legs,  commencing  at  the  top,  and 
bringing  them  out  at  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  left  with  a 
piece  extending  beyond  the  claws. 

The  tail  is  now  fixed  on,  by  first  attaching  to  it  a  quantity 
of  cotton  with  the  cement,  and,  when  dry,  it  is  fixed  to  the 
part  intended  as  the .  rump. 

The  feet  of  the  bird  must  be  fixed  into  a  piece  of  wood,  as 
a  perch,  the  ends  of  which  must  be  left  some  inches  be- 
yond the  body.  The  end  next  the  tail  is  fixed  into  a 
table-vice,  with  the  belly  upwards,  and  the  head  pointing 
towards  the  operator.  The  feathers  are  now  put  on,  com- 
mencing, under  the  tail,  or  crissum,  with  what  are  termed 
the  under-tail  coverts ;  a  coating  of  cement  must  be  previ- 
ously laid  on,  to  attach  the  feathers  with.  It  is  proceeded 
with  upwards  to  the  breast,  and  finally  the  length  of  the 
neck,  taking  care  to  put  the  proper  feathers  on  their  respect- 
ive sides,  as  the  side-feathers  have  all  an  inclination  to  one 
side.  The  bird  is  now  turned  with  the  back  up,  still  keep- 
ing the  head  towards  the  stuffer  ;  and  the  wings  are  fixed  on 
with  cement,  and  pins  forced  th  rough  the  beards  of  the 
feathers  to  conceal  the  heads.  When  this  is  done,  put  on  the 
feathers  of  the  rump,  and  proceed  upwards,  as  has  been  done 
with  the  belly.  After  reaching  the  top  of  the  neck,  the  head 


PRESERVATION  OF  COLORS.  241 

is  then  fixed  on  with  some  cotton  immersed  in  the  cement, 
and  allowed  to  dry  before  attempting  to  put  on  the  feathers. 

In  this  mode  of  mounting  a  bird  there  are  several  things 
which  must  be  attentively  adhered  to ;  these  are — first,  not 
to  put  the  feathers  too  thick,  for  there  is  a  danger  of  running 
short ;  secondly,  all  the  shafts  of  the  feathers  must  have  a 
small  bit  cut  off  the  tip,  so  as  to  admit  the  cement  and  to 
give  them  a  firmer  hold ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  feathers  should 
all  occupy  their  respective  parts  ;  and  fourthly,  that  they 
should  be  arranged  as  they  are  in  nature  on  these  parts,  as 
the  disposition  of  every  part  of  the  body  is  peculiar  to  itself. 

At  first,  this  mode  of  setting  up  birds  will  be  found  a 
difficult  task,  but,  by  a  little  practice  and  experience,  it  will 
become  familiar  and  comparatively  easy,  although  it  will 
always  be  found  a  tedious  process.  We  have  seen  some  spec- 
imens set  up  in  this  way,  which  we  could  hardly  detect  from 
those  mounted  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Besides  what  we  have  already  said  concerning  the  stuffing 
and  preparing  of  birds,  there  are  many  details  connected 
with  particular  species  which  demand  our  attention,  and 
which  can  only  be  described  as  regarding  that  species.  It 
will,  however,  be  impossible  for  us  to  enter  into  all  these  mi- 
nutely, but  only  give  a  few  examples  as  general  guides.  We 
shall  take  these  in  systematic  succession. 

Preservation  of  Colors.  In  the  preservation  of  the 
feathers  of  birds,  little  else  is  required  to  prevent  the  dissi- 
pation of  their  colors  than  to  keep  them  as  much  as  possible 
from  air  and  light.  These  two  agents,  which  were  indispen- 
sible  to  their  beauty  and  perfection  in  a  living  state,  now 
exercise  their  influence  as  destroyers,  and  that  influence  will 
sooner  or  later  work  its  ends  according  to  the  quality,  text- 
ure, or  color  of  the  object  with  which  it  is  contending.  The 
feathers  are  now  deprived  of  two  agents,  which  in  a  living 
state  contributed  to  their  vigor  and  their  beauty,  namely,  the 


242  TAXIDERMY. 

internal  circulating  juices  which  they  received  from  the  body 
of  the  animal,  and  the  external  application  of  oil  by  the  bill 
of  the  bird,  supplied  from  a  gland  which  is  placed  over  the 
rump  of  all  birds. 

The  colors  of  the  rapacious  tribes  are  not  so  evanescent  as 
those  of  many  others,  as  they,  for  the  most  part,  are  com- 
posed of  intense  browns  and  blacks,  which  are  not  so  easily 
absorbed  by  light  or  air,  so  that  they  continue  for  a  very  long 
period  without  any  sensible  difference.  There  are,  however, 
certain  other  points  which  are  liable  to  almost  immediate 
change  of  color  after  the  death  of  the  animals,  and  these  are 
the  cere  and  skin  of  the  legs  and  feet,  and  the  naked  skin  on 
the  heads  and  necks  of  vultures  and  their  congeners.  We 
shall  treat  of  these  individually. 

Now,  as  all  these  colors  which  we  have  described  are  liable 
to  change  immediately  after  death,  it  is  evident  that  consider- 
able nicety  will  be  required  to  give  the  preserved  specimen 
the  appearance  of  nature.  These  must,  therefore,  be  supplied 
artificially  with  the  Tarnish  colors,  which  we  have  particu- 
larly described  in  their  proper  place,  as  also  the  combinations 
for  the  formation  of  compound  colors.  The  reddish-brown 
color  mentioned,  of  which  the  fold  is  composed,  must  be 
touched  by  a  mixture  of  the  scarlet  varnish,  with  a  little  pow- 
dered burnt  umber,  and  the  blue  streaks  with  which  it  is 
traversed,  colored  above  with  cobalt  blue.  All  the  varnish 
colors  have  a  tendency  to  shine,  which,  it  will  be  evident,  is 
not  the  character  of  any  part  of  the  skin  or  earuncle  of  the 
bird  described.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  it  is  thoroughly  dry, 
which  will  be  in  about  an  hour,  the  whole  surface  must  be 
gently  rubbed  with  very  fine  sand-paper,  which  will  com- 
pletely remove  the  gloss  and  give  the  appeance  of  nature. 

Some  nicety  will  be  required  in  painting  betwixt  the  hairs, 
but  it  can  be  easily  managed  with  a  little  caution.  Some- 
times these  hairs  are  liable  to  become  brown,  in  which  case 
they  can  be  touched  with  the  black  varnish. 


BIRDS'  EGGS  AND  NESTS.  243 

As  these  birds  are  inhabitants  of  warm  climates,  some  care 
is  requisite  after  killing  them,  to  prevent  decay ;  the  tendons 
of  the  legs  should  be  extracted  to  prevent  their  being  attacked 
by  moths,  and  their  place  supplied  by  some  cotton  and  pre- 
servatives. The  tendons  are  extracted  by  means  of  a  longi- 
tudinal incision  made  behind  the  tarsus.  The  edges  of  this 
incision  can  easily  be  brought  together  when  the  bird  is  under 
the  process  of  preparation. 


COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  BIRDS' 
Y<£^  EGGS  AND  NESTS. 

^^P^EW  objects  of  natural  history  are  more  interesting 
&$U&  ^an  ^e  nes*s  °f  bi^s.  To  the  reflecting  naturalist 
*$!\$&  they  open  up  a  wide  field  for  inquiry.  Speaking  of 
the  examination  of  birds,  in  the  exercise  of  their  me- 
chanical arts  of  constructing  nests,  Professor  Rennie  says: 
"  This  work  is  the  business  of  their  lives — the  duty  which 
calls  forth  that  wonderful  ingenuity  which  no  experience  can 
teach,  and  which  no  human  skill  can  rival.  The  infinite 
variety  of  modes  in  which  the  nests  of  birds  are  constructed, 
and  the  exquisite  adaptation  of  the  nest  to  the  peculiar  habits 
of  the  individual,  offer  a  subject  of  almost  exhaustless  inter- 
est." The  number  and  variety  of  the  eggs  of  birds  are  curious 
subjects  of  contemplation,  and  should  be  carefully  noted 
whenever  opportunity  offers.  They  are  as  essential  to  the  per- 
sonal history  of  the  species,  as  any  other  part  of  our  inquiries. 
The  eggs  are  emptied  of  their  contents  by  making  a  very 
small  hole  at  each  end  with  a  point.  By  blowing  at  one  of 
the  ends,  the  contents  will  escape  by  the  other,  unless  the 
young  has  been  already  formed ;  in  which  case  a  larger  hole 
must  be  made  in  the  side  of  the  egg,  and  the  contents  removed 


244  TAXIDERMY. 

with  a  small  hook.  The  hole  should  then  be  stopped  up  by 
pasting  a  little  goldbeater's  leaf  over  it.  The  eggs  are  then 
either  returned  to  their  nest,  in  which  they  ought  to  be 
cemented,  or  should  be  fixed  down  by  one  side  to  cards,  with 
the  name  and  locality  attached. 

The  best  manner  of  conveying  loose  eggs  to  a  distance,  is 
to  put  some  cotton  at  the  bottom  of  the  nest,  and  then  another 
layer  above  them.  The  nests  should  all  be  put  in  separate 
boxes  if  possible,  and  so  packed  that  the  pressure  of  the  lid 
may  not  injure  the  eggs,  or  a  box  with  several  compartments 
should  be  used,  taking  care  that  each  is  carefully  marked.  It 
would  also  be  of  consequence  to  have  the  nests  attached  to 
the  branches,  with  those  species  which  build  on  trees,  which 
will  enable  us  to  trace  the  ingenious  means  employed  by 
those  little  animals  in  constructing  their  habitations.  In 
sending  home  specimens  from  a  foreign  country,  the  seams  of 
the  box  should  be  covered  by  pitched  cloth  to  protect  them 
from  the  influence  of  moisture. 

To  preserve  the  shells  of  eggs,  first  take  care  to  clear  them 
of  their  contents;  get  a  small,  fine-pointed  common  syringe, 
such  as  is  sold  in  toy-shops  for  a  penny  or  twopence,  and  in- 
ject the  specimen  with  water  until  it  comes  out  quite  clean. 
When  an  egg  has  been  partly  hatched  or  addled,  the  removal 
of  the  contents  generally  includes  that  of  the  internal  mem- 
brane or  pellicle;  this  makes  the  shell  weaker.  When  the 
specimens  are  quite  clean  internally,  and  have  become  dry 
(which  will  be  in  a  day  or  two),  take  the  syringe  and  inject 
them  with  a  strong  solution  of  isinglass  (with  a  little  sugar- 
candy  added  to  prevent  its  cracking);  blow  this  out  again 
whilst  warm.  Let  the  shell  get  dry,  and  then  wash  the  out- 
side with  a  soft  wet  cloth  to  remove  saline  particles,  dirt  from 
the  nest,  etc.  This  method  varnishes  the  inside,  and  the  first 
specimen  on  which  it  has  been  tried  was  the  before-mentioned 
hedge-accentor's  egg,  which  is  to  this  day  as  bright  in  color  as 
a  fresh  specimen. 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES.  245 

Also  in  a  pair  of  nightjar's  eggs,  of  which  species  the  deli- 
cate gray  tint  is  particularly  evanescent,  one  was  injected  in 
the  manner  described,  and  the  other  was  not;  in  the  first  the 
gray  is  still  perfectly  defined,  in  the  other  it  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared. Eggs  which  have  lost  their  internal  pellicle  become 
strengthened  by  this  process,  and  those  which  have  not  lost 
their  color  greatly  improved. 


SKINNING,   PRESERVING,    AND    SETTING    UP   REPTILES, 
AND  MOLLUSCOUS  ANIMALS,  ETC. 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES. 


The  first  operation  is  to  separate  the  back 
and  breast  shells  with  a  strong  short  knife,  or  chisel, 
If  the  force  of  the  hand  is  inadequate,  a  mallet  may 
be  used,  taking  care  not  to  strike  so  hard  as  to  crack  the  shell. 

These  two  bony  plates  being  covered  by  the  skin,  or  by 
scales,  the  scapula,  and  all  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  neck, 
in  place  of  being  attached  to  the  ribs  and  spine,  are  placed 
below,  from  which  cause  the  tortoise  has  been  termed  a  retro- 
verted  animal.  The  vertebral  extremity  of  the  scapula  is 
articulated  with  the  shield,  and  the  opposite  extremity  of  the 
clavicle  with  the  breast-plate  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
shoulders  form  a  ring  for  the  passage  of  the  windpipe  and 
gullet. 

After  the  turtle  is  opened,  all  the  flesh  which  adheres  to  the 
breast-plate,  and  also  to  the  upper  shell,  is  removed,  while 
attention  is  paid  to  the  parts  as  above  described.  The  head, 
fore-feet,  and  tail  are  skinned  as  in  quadrupeds;  but  none  of 
these  must  be  removed  from  the  upper  shell,  but  left  attached. 

All  the  fleshy  parts  being  removed,  the  shells  are  washed 


246  TAXIDERMY. 

out  with  a  sponge,  and  carefully  dried.     They  are  then  slighty 
rubbed  with  the  arsenical  soap. 

Stuffing.  Wires  are  now  passed  through  the  middle  of 
the  legs,  after  the  skin  has  been  rubbed  with  the  preservative. 
The  skull  is  returned  to  its  place,  and  the  whole  of  the  head, 
neck,  and  legs  stuffed  with  chopped  flax  or  tow.  The  parts 
of  the  skin  which  have  been  cut  are  then  sewed  together.  The 
back  and  breast-plates  are  then  united  by  four  small  holes, 
being  bored  at  their  edges,  and  united  by  strings  or  small 
wires.  The  junction  of  the  bones  may  then  be  attached  with 
the  cement,  colored  so  as  to  correspond  with  the  shell. 

If  the  calipash  is  dirty,  it  may  be  cleaned  with  a  slight 
solution  of  nitric-acid  and  water;  afterwards  clean  washed, 
oiled,  and  then  rubbed  hard  with  a  woolen  rag,  to  give  it  a 
polish. 

CROCODILES  AND  LIZARDS  IN  GEN- 
ERAL. 

Skinning.  All  this  tribe  are  skinned  in  the  same  manner 
as  quadrupeds.  Care  is,  however,  required  in  skinning  the 
tails  of  the  smaller  species,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  break. 
The  skins  being  of  a  dry  nature,  require  but  little  of  the  pre- 
servative. After  they  are  thoroughly  dried  they  will  keep  a 
very  long  time  without  decay. 

Stuffing.  Stuff  them  as  directed  for  quadrupeds.  They 
admit  of  but  little  variety  of  attitude.  The  small  species  are 
exceedingly  apt  to  change  color  in  drying,  which  must  be 
imitated  with  the  colored  varnishes,  and  afterwards  dimmed 
with  sand-paper.  To  keep  them  in  their  natural  colors,  they 
should  be  preserved  in  spirits. 

The  skins  of  such  as  are  glossy  should  be  varnished  after 
they  are  perfectly  dry. 


SERPENTS  IN  GENERAL.  247 


SERPENTS  IN  GENERAL. 

Skinning.  In  skinning  serpents  there  is  some  nicety  re- 
quired, to  cut  them  so  as  not  to  disfigure  the  scales;  the  open- 
ing should  be  made  in  the  side,  commencing  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  scales;  and  they  should  on  no  account  be  divided, 
as  upon  their  number  the  species  is  mostly  determined. 

It  is  a  very  frequent  practice  to  send  home  serpents  with- 
out the  head,  which  renders  them  quite  unfit  for  any  scientific 
purpose.  This  proceeds  from  the  fear  of  receiving  poison 
from  the  fangs.  But  there  is  not  the  slightest  danger  of  be- 
ing affected,  as  these  can  easily  be  cut  out  by  means  of  pin- 
cers. The  head  should  be  cleaned  and  the  brain  removed,  in 
the  same  manner  as  recommended  for  birds  and  quadrupeds, 
the  skull  anointed  and  then  returned  into  the  skin. 

When  the  skin  is  removed,  it  may  be  rolled  up  and  packed 
in  small  space.  The  simplest  way  to  preserve  small  species  is 
to  put  them  in  spirits,  which  must  not  be  too  strong,  as  it 
will  destroy  the  colors. 

Mr.  Burchell,  in  his  four  years'  journey  through  Africa, 
glued  the  skins  of  the  smaller  serpents  perfectly  flat  on  paper, 
which  preserved  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  the  skin  retained 
all  the  beauty  of  life. 

Stuffing.  The  skin,  if  not  recent,  must  be  first  softened 
in  the  manner  recommended  for  birds.  A  piece  of  wire  is 
taken,  the  length  of  the  animal,  which  must  be  wrapped  round 
with  tow  till  it  is  of  a  proper  thickness,  and  above  the  whole 
a  spiral  band  of  sliver  should  be  carefully  wrapped.  It  is  then 
placed  inside  of  the  skin,  and  sewed  up.  The  eyes  are  placed 
in,  as  directed  for  quadrupeds  and  birds.  When  dry,  give 
the  serpent  a  coat  of  varnish,  and  then  twist  it  into  any  atti- 
tude wished.  A  favorite  and  striking  one  is  to  have  it  wound 
round  some  animal,  and  in  the  act  of  killing  it. 


248  TAXIDERMY. 


FROGS  AND  TOADS. 

Skinning.  The  mouth  is  opened,  and  the  first  vertebrae  of 
the  neck  is  cut.  The  whole  inside  of  the  mouth  is  cut  out 
with  scissors.  The  two  jaws  are  next  raised  up  and  the  skin 
is  pushed  back  with  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  while  the 
body  is  drawn  back  in  a  contrary  direction  with  the  other 
hand,  and  the  whole  body  is  then  drawn  out  at  the  mouth. 
The  legs  are  then  returned  to  their  proper  place. 

Stuffing.  The  simples'-  method  of  stuffing  these  animals, 
is  with  sand.  A  small  funnel  is  placed  into  the  mouth,  and 
pour  in  well  dried  sand,  When  full,  a  small  piece  of  cotton 
is  pushed  into  the  throat,  with  some  of  the  cement,  to  keep 
the  sand  from  escaping  on  moving  the  animal. 

The  frog  is  then  placed  on  a  board,  and  in  an  attitude. 
When  quite  dry,  give  it  a  coat  of  varnish.  When  this  has 
perfectly  dried,  very  small  perforations  are  made  under  the 
belly  with  the  point  of  a  needle,  and  the  sand  allowed  to 
escape,  leaving  the  body  in  its  natural  form. 

These  animals  are  liable  to  change  of  color  from  drying,  and 
should,  therefore,  be  painted  with  the  varnish  to  their 
natural  hues.  There  is  less  difficulty  with  toads  in  this  re- 
spect, as  they  are  usually  of  a  brown  color,  and  not  liable  to 
much  change. 

They  may  be  perfectly  preserved  in  spirits. 


SPIDEKS.  249 


PRESERVING  SPIDERS,  GALLY-WORMS,  AND  INSECTS. 


1HE  general  directions  which  we  shall  give  respecting 
insects,  hold  good  as  to  spiders,  only  we  must  men- 
tion there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  preserving  the 
bodies  of  spiders,  which  generally,  in  a  very  short  time,  shrink 
into  a  shapeless  mass.  To  prevent  this,  the  body  should  be 
pricked  with  the  triangular  awl  and  the  contents  pressed  out; 
it  should  then  be  stuffed  with  very  fine  carded  cotton  or  down, 
which  can  be  pushed  in  by  a  pricker,  blunted  a  little  at  the 
point.  When  properly  distended,  the  small  aperture  should 
be  filled  up  with  a  little  cement,  or  a  solution  of  gum-arabic. 
The  legs  of  the  larger  species,  such  as  the  bird-catching  My- 
gale  and  the  Scorpions,  are  also  liable  to  shrink,  and  should 
be  stuffed  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  body. 

In  those  species  of  spiders  which  we  have  thus  prepared,  and 
whose  colors  are  rich  and  likely  to  be  affected  by  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  we  must  endeavor  to  arrest  its  progress  by 
immediately  imbuing  the  animal,  after  it  is  set  up,  with  the 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  and  in  an  hour  after  with  a 
thin  coating  of  a  very  weak  white-spirit  varnish;  for  this  pur- 
pose, take  a  teaspoonful  of  the  ordinary  white-spirit  or  elastic 
varnish,  and  add  to  it  two  teaspoonfuls  of  spirit  of  wine;  apply 
this  wash  with  a  fine  camel  hair  brush,  which  will  quickly  dry, 
and  have  a  strong  tendency  to  preserve  the  color.  The  var- 
nish, being  thus  reduced  in  strength,  will  not  leave  any  gloss 
on  the  insect,  nor  will  it  be  at  all  perceptible. 

Mr.  Samouelle,  author  of  "The  Entomologist's  Useful 
Compendium,"  in  speaking  of  preserving  spiders,  says:  "  The 
best  preserved  specimens  that  I  have  seen  are  those  where  the 
3onteuts  of  the  abdomen  have  been  taken  out  and  filled  with 


250  TAXIDERMY. 

fine  sand.  I  have  preserved  several  in  this  way,  and  find  it 
answer  the  purpoBe." 

Mr.  Donovan  makes  the  following  observations  on  the  pres- 
ervation of  spiders: 

"  To  determine  whether  some  species  of  spiders  could  be 
preserved  with  their  natural  colors,  I  put  several  into  spirits 
of  wine;  those  with  gibbous  bodies  soon  after  discharged  a 
very  considerable  quantity  of  viscid  matter,  and  therewith  all 
their  beautiful  colors;  the  smallest  retained  their  form,  and 
only  appeared  rather  paler  in  the  other  colors  than  when  they 
were  living. 

"  During  the  course  of  last  summer,  among  other  spiders, 
I  met  with  a  rare  species;  it  was  of  a  bright  yellow  color, 
elegantly  marked  with  black,  red,  green,  and  purple;  by  some 
accident  it  was  unfortunately  crushed  to  pieces  in  the  chip- 
box  wherein  it  was  confined,  and  was,  therefore,  thrown  aside 
as  useless;  a  month  or  more  after  that  time  I  observed  that 
such  parts  of  the  skin  as  had  dried  against  the  inside  of  the 
box,  retained  the  original  brightness  of  color  in  a  consider- 
able degree.  To  further  the  experiment,  I  made  a  similar 
attempt,  with  some  caution,  on  the  body  of  another  spider, 
and,  though  the  colors  were  not  perfectly  preserved,  they  ap- 
peared distinct. 

"From  further  observations  I  find,  that  if  you  kill  the 
spider  and  immediately  after  extract  the  entrails,  then  inflate 
them  by  means  of  a  blow-pipe,  you  may  preserve  them  toler- 
ably well;  you  must  clean  them  on  the  inside  no  more  than  is 
sufficient  to  prevent  mouldiness,  lest  you  injure  the  colors, 
which  certainly,  in  many  kinds,  depend  on  substance  that  lies 
beneath  the  skin." 

Scorpions,  and  all  the  spider  tribe,  may  be  sent  home 
in  spirits,  which  will  preserve  them  perfectly,  and  when  taken 
out  and  dried,  they  will  be  found  to  have  suffered  nothing 
from  their  immersion.  We  have  seen  some  specimens  set  up, 
after  being  sent  home  in  spirits,  which  rivaled  any  which 


INSECTS.  251 

have  been  preserved  in  a  recent  state.  The  animals  of  this  class 
are  particularly  liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  particularly 
in  warm  countries,  on  which  account  the  mode  of  transport- 
ing them  and  keeping  them  in  spirits  is,  perhaps,  superior  to 
all  others.  If,  however,  they  are  set  up  in  a  warm  climate, 
they  should  be  well  soaked  with  the  solution  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate, made  according  to  the  recipe  of  Mr.  "Waterton. 

For  the  setting  up  of  this  class,  see  the  directions  for  pre- 
serving insects. 

INSECTS. 

Every  country  of  the  world  is  replete  with  this  extensive 
and  interesting  class  of  beings,  whose  forma  are  infinitely 
diversified,  and  whose  species  are  the  most  numerous  of  any 
class  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

Before  any  attempt  is  made  to  collect  insects,  certain  appa- 
ratus must  be  provided,  not  only  to  enable  us  to  secure  them, 
but  also  to  preserve  them  after  they  are  caught. 

First,  then,  we  must  be  provided  with  a  quantity  of  wooden 
boxes,  from  18  to  20  inches  long,  15  to  17  inches  wide,  and 
two  inches  deep.  These  should  have  well-filled  lids,  with 
hinges,  and  fastened  by  a  wire  catch,  or  small  bolt.  The 
bottom  should  have  a  layer  of  cork,  about  the  sixth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  which  should  be  fixed  down  with  very  strong 
paste,  made  according  to  our  recipe;  and  also  some  wire 
nails,  to  prevent  it  from  springing.  Over  the  cork  should 
be  pasted  white  paper.  The  box  should  be  anointed  inside 
with  oil  of  petroleum.  If  that  cannot  be  procured,  make 
an  infusion  of  strong  aromatic  plants,  such  as  cinnamon, 
aloes,  thyme,  laurel,  sage,  rosemary,  or  cloves,  and  wash  the 
inside  with  it.  A  small  packet  of  camphor  should  be  wrapped 
in  a  piece  of  rag,  and  deposited  in  a  corner  of  the  box. 

We  must  also  be  provided  with  a  quantity  of  insect  pins 
of  different  sizes,  corresponding  with  the  size  of  the  insect. 


252  TAXIDERMY. 

The  pins  used  for  setting  should  be  longer  than  those  which 
are  taken  to  the  field. 

Bottles,  with  mouths  from  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  two 
inches  in  diameter,  must  also  be  procured,  and  these  must  be 
three-fourths  full  of  spirits,  such  as  weak  brandy,  rum,  gin, 
or  whisky. 

Hunting-Box.  We  must,  besides,  have  what  is  termed 
a  hunting-box,  for  carrying  in  our  pocket,  when  seeking  after 
insects.  This  should  be  made  of  strong  paste-board  or  chip, 
for  lightness,  or,  if  this  is  no  consideration,  of  tin.  It  must 
be  of  an  oblong-oval  shape,  rounded  at  the  ends,  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  pocket.  It  should  be  from  eight  to  ten  inches 
long,  four  to  five  inches  wide,  and  two-and-a-half  to  three 
inches  deep.  It  must  have  a  layer  of  cork  both  in  the  bot- 
tom and  top  of  the  lid,  inside  for  attaching  insects  to,  when 
caught  during  the  day.  The  larger  insects  are  placed  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  smaller  ones  on  the  lid. 

The  Entomological.  We  next  procure  a  net,  as  in  fig- 
ure 26,  constructed  similar  to  a  bat-fowling  net.  This  is 
either  made  of  fine  gauze  or  coarse  muslin ;  it  may  either  be 
green  or  white — the  latter  is  the  best  for  observing  small  in- 
sects which  may  be  caught ;  the  green,  however,  is  better 
adapted  for  catching  moths.  The  net- rods  should  be  made 
of  hickory,  beech,  hazel,  or  holly  ;  they  ought  to  be  five  feet 
in  length,  quite  round,  smooth,  and  tapering  to  an  obtuse 
point,  as  at  figure  24 ;  the  oblique  cross-piece  at  the  point 
should  be  of  cane,  and  fitted  into  the  angular  ferrule  ;  the 
rod  must  be  divided  into  three  or  four  pieces,  so  that  it  may 
be  taken  asunder  and  carried  in  the  pocket ;  the  upper  part 
of  each  joint  must  have  a  ferrule  affixed  to  it,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  articulating  the  other  pieces.  Each  joint  should 
have  a  notch  or  check  to  prevent  the  rod  from  twisting. 

The  net  itself,  figure  31,  must  have  a  welting  all  around  it, 


INSECTS.  258 

doubled  so  as  to  form  a  groove  for  the  reception  of  the 
rods.  la  the  center  of  the  upper  part  or  point  it  must  have 
a  small  piece  of  chamois  leather,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
hinge;  this  must  be  bound  round  the  welting  and  divided 
in  the  middle,  so  as  to  prevent  the  cross  pieces  from  slipping 
over  each  other;  it  shows  about  four  inches  of  the  gauze 
turned  up,  so  as  to  form  a  bag;  there  are  strings  for  the 
purpose  of  passing  through  the  staple,  to  which  the  net  is 
firmly  drawn  on  each  side.  When  the  net  is  used  a  handle 
is  to  be  held  in  each  hand. 

If  it  is  intended  to  take  insects  on  the  wing,  by  means 
of  this  net,  for  which  it  is  admirably  adapted,  it  may  be 
folded  together  in  an  instant.  If  the  gauze  is  fine  enough, 
and  preserved  whole,  even  the  smallest  insect  cannot  escape. 
It  may  be  also  applied  in  catching  coleopterous  insects, 
which  are  never  on  the  wing,  as  well  as  caterpillars.  When 
used  for  this  purpose  the  entomologist  must  hold  it  ex- 
panded under  trees,  while  another  must  beat  the  branches 
with  a  stick.  Great  numbers  of  both  insects  and  Iarva3  will 
fall  in  the  gauze,  and  by  this  means  many  hundreds  may 
be  captured  in  a  day. 

Another  method  is  to  spread  a  large  table-cloth  under  trees 
and  bushes,  and  then  beat  them  with  a  stick.  An  umbrella 
reversed  has  frequently  been  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
Bose,  the  celebrated  naturalist,  used  this  last  method — he 
held  the  umbrella  in  the  left  hand,  while  he  beat  the  bushes 
with  the  other. 

The  Hoop  or  Aquatic  Net,  Figure  26.  This  net  is 
used  for  capturing  aquatic  insects,  which  are  either  lurking 
at  the  bottom,  swimming  through  the  liquid  element,  or  ad- 
hering to  plants.  It  may  also  be  successfully  used  in  sweep- 
ing amongst  grass  and  low  herbage  for  coleopterous  insects 
and  others  which  are  generally  to  be  found  in  such  situations. 
The  socket,  for  the  handle,  may  be  made  of  such  dimensions 


254  TAXIDERMY. 

as  will  answer  the  second  joint  of  the  entomological  net-rod, 
which  will  save  carrying  another  handle ;  or  a  walking-stick 
may  be  made  to  fit  it. 

A  Phial,  Figure  33.  This  may  either  be  made  of  tin  or 
crystal,  and  used  for  collecting  coleopterous  and  other  creep- 
ing insects.  The  mouth  should  be  nearly  an  inch  wide,  and 
a  cork  exactly  fitted  to  it,  in  the  center  of  which  must  be  in- 
serted a  small  quill,  to  afford  air,  and  inserted  about  an  inch 
beyond  the  cork,  to  prevent  the  insects  from  escaping.  If  the 
bottle  is  made  of  tin,  and  of  a  larger  size,  a  tin  tube  must  be 
introduced  into  its  side,  and  terminating  externally  at  the 
surface. 

A  Digger,  Figure  28.  The  instrument  is  either  made  of 
iron  or  steel,  and  is  about  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  fixed 
into  a  turned  wooden  handle.  It  is  used  for  collecting  the 
pupa?  of  lepidopterous  insects,  at  the  roots  and  in  the  clefts 
of  the  bark  of  trees ;  and  also  for  pulling  off  the  bark,  partic- 
ularly from  decayed  trees,  under  which  many  curious  and 
rare  insects  are  frequently  found.  It  is  most  useful  with  an 
arrow-headed  point. 

Setting  Needles,  Figure  29.  Fitted  into  a  small  wooden 
handle,  the  needle  itself  should  be  about  three  inches  long, 
and  about  the  thickness  of  a  small  darning-needle,  slightly 
bent  from  about  the  middle.  Figure  30  is  a  straight  needle 
which  is  used  for  extending  the  parts  of  insects ;  at  one  end  of 
the  handle  is  the  needle,  and  at  the  other  a  camel-hair  pencil, 
which  is  used  for  removing  any  dirt  or  dust  which  may  be 
on  the  insects.  The  pencil  may  be  occasionally  drawn 
through  the  lips,  brought  to  a  fine  point,  and  used  for  dispos- 
ing the  antennas  and  palpi  of  insects  of  the  minute  kinds. 

Brass  Pliers,  Figure  25.  These  are  used  for  picking  up 
small  insects  from  the  roots  of  grass,  etc.  They  may  also  be 


INSECTS,  256 

used  for  laying  hold  of  small  insects,  while  they  are  yet  free 
and  not  set  up. 

Fan  Forceps.  This  very  useful  instrument  to  the  ento* 
mologist,  must  be  made  of  steel  or  iron,  and  about  eight  or 
ten  inches  in  length ;  its  general  construction  is  like  that  of  a 
pair  of  scissors,  and  it  is  held  and  used  in  the  same  manner, 
Towards  the  points  are  formed  a  pair  of  fans,  which  may 
either  be  square,  oval,  hexagonal,  or  octagonal  in  the  edges, 
and  the  centeri  covered  with  fine  gauze.  The  general  size  of 
the  fans  is  from  four  to  six  inches.  These  are  used  for  capt- 
uring bees,  wasps,  and  muscae.  They  are  also  used  for  catch- 
ing butterflies,  motha,  and  sphinges.  If  an  insect  is  on  a  leaf, 
both  leaf  and  insect  may  be  inclosed  within  the  fans ;  or  if 
they  are  on  a  wall  or  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  they  may  be  very 
easily  secured  by  them. 

If  a  butterfly,  sphinx,  or  moth,  are  captured  by  the  forceps, 
while  yet  between  the  fans,  they  should  be  pressed  pretty 
smoothly  with  the  thumb-nail,  on  the  thorax  or  body,  taking 
care,  however,  not  to  crush  it.  It  may  then  be  taken  into  the 
hand,  and  a  pin  passed  through  the  thorax,  and  then  stuck 
into  the  bottom  of  your  hunting-box. 

Quills.  These  are  of  great  use  in  carrying  minute  insects. 
They  should  be  neatly  stopped  with  cork  and  cement  at  one 
end,  the  other  end  should  be  provided  with  a  small  movable 
cork  for  a  stopper.  Each  end  should  be  wrapped  carefully 
round  with  a  silk  thread  waxed,  to  prevent  them  from  split- 
ting. 

Pocket  Larvae-Box.  For  collecting  caterpillars,  this  box 
is  very  essential :  it  consists  merely  of  a  chip-box,  with  a  hole 
pierced  in  the  center  of  the  top  and  bottom,  and  covered  with 
gauze,  for  the  admission  of  air.  It  will  be  necessary  to  put 
into  the  box  some  of  the  leaves  on  which  the  larvae  feed,  as 
they  are  very  voracious,  and  cannot  long  exist  without  food. 


256  TAXIDI-:RMY. 

Pill-Boxes.  No  entomologist  should  be  without  five  or 
six  dozen  of  these  useful  articles.  They  are  of  great  value  in 
collecting  the  smaller  species  of  lepidopterous  insects,  such  as 
the  tinea,  etc.,  and  only  one  specimen  should  be  put  in  each 
box,  as,  if  more  than  one,  they  are  apt  to  injure  each  other's 
wings  by  beating  against  each  other. 

Setting  Boards.  These  must  be  made  of  deal  board, 
from  a  foot  to  fifteen  inches  long,  and  eight  or  ten  inches 
broad,  with  a  piece  of  wood  run  across  the  ends,  to  prevent 
them  from  warping.  They  are  covered  with  cork,  which 
must  be  perfectly  smooth  on  the  surface,  with  white  paper 
pasted  over  it.  Several  boards  will  be  required,  by  persons 
who  are  making  collections,  as  some  of  the  insects  take  a  con- 
siderable time  to  dry,  so  that  they  may  be  fit  for  introducing 
into  a  cabinet. 

The  boards  should  be  kept  in  a  frame  made  for  the  purpose. 
It  should  consist  of  a  top,  bottom,  and  two  sides;  the  back 
and  front  should  have  the  frames  of  doors  attached  by  small 
hinges,  and  their  centers  covered  with  fine  gauze,  for  the  free 
passage  of  air;  the  sides  should  have  small  pieces  of  wood  pro- 
jecting from  them,  for  the  boards  to  rest  on;  which  should  be 
at  such  a  distance  from  each  other  that  the  pins  may  not  be 
displaced  in  pushing  the  boards  in  or  drawing  them  out.  The 
frame  should  be  placed  in  a  dry,  airy  situation. 

Braces.  These  are  merely  small  pieces  of  card,  cut  in 
the  form  exhibited,  Fig.  36,  attached  to  the  butterfly  and  other 
insects;  and  also  at  Fig.  39.  They  are  pinned  down  on  the 
insects,  to  keep  their  wings,  etc.,  in  a  proper  state,  till  they 
acquire  a  set. 


SETTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS,  257 

SETTING    AND    PRESERVING   INSECTS. 

Of  the  orders  Coleoptera,  Orthoptera,  and  Hemiptera. 
These  are  easily  preserved. 

They  are  killed  by  immersing  in  scalding  water,  and  then 
laid  upon  blossom  or  blotting  paper,  for  the  purpose  of 
absorbing  as  much  of  the  moisture  as  possible;  or  they  may 
be  placed  in  a  tin  box,  with  a  little  camphor  in  it,  near  the 
fire,  which  soon  kills  them.  This  is,  besides,  of  considerable 
effect  in  their  preservation. 

Insects  of  the  genera  Gryllus  (Cricket),  Locusta  (Locusts), 
etc.,  have  tender  bodies,  and  are  sure  to  shrivel  in  drying. 
The  intestines  should  therefore  be  extracted,  while  they  are 
yet  moist,  and  skin  filled  with  cotton,  as  directed  with  some 
of  the  spiders. 

When  Coleopterous  insects  are  set  with  the  wings  displayed, 
the  elytra  should  be  separated,  and  the  pin  passed  through 
their  body  near  the  middle  of  the  thorax,  as  in  Fig.  35.  The 
wings  are  exhibited  as  in  the  act  of  flying,  and  are  retained 
in  this  situation  until  they  are  quite  dry,  by  the  cord  braces. 
The  insects  of  this  order  should  always  have  the  pin  passed 
through  the  right  elytra  on  the  right  side,  as  shown  at  Fig. 
37,  that  is,  it  should  pass  underneath,  between  the  first  pair 
of  feet  and  the  intermediate  ones. 

The  legs,  palpi  and  antennas  should  be  displayed  in  a  natural 
order  on  the  setting  board,  and  retained  in  the  position 
by  means  of  pins  and  braces,  as  shown  in  Figs.  35,  37.  These 
must  be  kept  in  that  state,  either  longer  or  shorter,  accord- 
ing to  the  insect  and  the  state  of  the  weather,  as,  if  placed  in 
a  cabinet  before  they  are  quite  dry,  they  are  sure  to  get 
mouldy,  and  will  ultimately  rot. 

Minute  insects  should  be  attached  to  cards  with  gum,  as 
shown,  Figs.  34  and  39,  with  the  legs  and  other  organs  dis- 
played. Entomologists  generally  adapt  triangular  cards  as  at 
Fig.  38,  as  less  liable  to  hide  the  parts  of  the  insects. 


258  TAXIDERMY. 

Order  Lepidoptera.  Mr.  Haworth,  in  mentioning  the 
tenacity  of  life  in  the  Goat  Moth,  states  that  "  the  usual  way 
of  compressing  the  thorax  is  not  sufficient  to  kill  this  insect. 
They  will  live  several  days  after  the  most  severe  pressure  has 
been  given  there,  to  the  great  uneasiness  of  any  humane  ento- 
mologists. The  methods  of  suffocation  by  tobacco  or  sulphur 
are  equally  inefficacious,  unless  continued  for  a  greater  num- 
ber of  hours,  than  is  proper  for  the  preservation  of  the  speci- 
mens. Another  method  now  in  practice  is  better,  and 
however  fraught  with  cruelty  it  may  appear  to  the  inexperi- 
enced collector,  is  the  greatest  piece  of  comparative  mercy  that 
can,  in  this  case,  be  administered.  When  the  larger  Moths 
must  be  killed,  destroy  them  at  once  by  the  insertion  of  a 
strong,  red-hot  needle  into  their  thickest  part,  beginning  at  the 
froat  of  the  thorax.  If  this  be  properly  done,  instead  of 
lingering  through  several  days,  they  are  dead  in  a  moment.  It 
appears  to  me,  however,  that  insects  being  animals  of  cold  and 
sluggish  juices,  are  not  so  susceptible  of  the  sensations  we  call 
pain,  as  those  which  enjoy  a  warmer  temperature  of  body, 
and  a  swifter  circulation  of  the  fluids.  To  the  philosophic 
mind  it  is  self-evident  that  they  have  not  such  acute  organs 
of  feeling  pain  as  other  animals  of  a  similar  size,  whose  juices 
are  endowed  with  a  quicker  motion,  and  possess  a  constant, 
regular  and  genial  warmth. 

Butterflies  are  soon  killed  by  passing  a  pin  through  the 
thorax.  The  pin  passed  through  the  thorax  of  small  moths 
generally  proves  almost  instantly  fatal  to  them. 

The  best  manner  of  preserving  the  minute  species  of  moths 
is  by  pill-boxes,  as  above  stated,  each  moth  being  kept  in  a 
separate  box.  We  have  found  the  following  the  best  mode 
of  destroying  them : 

A  piece  of  flat  hard-wood  is  taken,  and  a  circular  groove 
cut  in  it,  sufficiently  deep  to  admit  the  mouth  of  a  tumbler 
being  placed  within  it.  In  the  center  of  the  wood,  piorcc  a 
hole  about  a  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter  in  its  center:  placo 


SETTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS.  259 

the  pill  box  under  this  tumbler,  with  the  lid  off,  and  the 
insect  will  soon  creep  out;  but  whether  it  does  so  or  not,  a 
match  well  primed  with  sulphur  is  lighted  and  placed  into 
the  hole  under  the  center  of  the  tumbler,  which  will  suffocate 
the  insect  in  a  few  seconds.  I  have  also  found  this  an  effect- 
ual method  of  killing  the  larger  species  of  butterflies,  and 
moths.  In  piercing  them,  the  pin  should  be  quite  perpen- 
dicular, that  no  part  of  their  minute  frame  should  be  hidden 
by  its  oblique  position. 

The  larger  insects  of  this  order  are  set  by  braces  chiefly. 
A  single  one  should  in  the  first  place  be  introduced  under  the 
wing,  near  the  thorax,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36,  and  a  longer  brace 
extending  over  the  wings.  These  should  not  bear  upon  the 
wings,  but  be  ready  to  rest  gently  on  them,  when  required. 
The  wings  are  now  elevated  to  their  proper  position  by  the 
setting  needle,  and  other  braces  are  used  as  necessity  dictates. 
The  feet  and  antennae  are  extended  and  kept  in  their  places 
by  means  of  pins,  in  which  operation  small  braces  are  also 
occasionally  used. 

The  French  entomologists  set  butterflies,  moths,  and 
sphinges,  on  a  piece  of  soft  wood,  in  which  they  have  exca- 
vated a  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  body,  as  deep  as  the  in- 
sertion of  the  wings.  They  are  otherwise  preserved  as  above 
directed. 

In  the  larger  butterflies,  moths,  and  sphinges,  the  abdomen 
should  be  perforated,  its  contents  extracted,  and  then  stuffed 
with  fine  cotton,  after  having  been  washed  internally  with  the 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Indeed,  the  cotton  should 
also  be  rubbed  with  arsenical  soap  before  being  introduced, 
as  these  insects  are  particularly  liable  to  the  attack  of  smaller 
insects,  such  as  the  mite. 

Several  of  the  moth  tribe  are  extremely  liable  to  change 
their  color  some  time  after  they  have  been  placed  in  a  cabinet. 
This  change  is  frequently  occasioned  by  an  oily  matter  which 
is  common  to  many  of  them,  This  first  makes  its  appearance 


2GC  TAXIDERMY. 

in  small  spots  on  the  body,  but  soon  spreads  itself  over  the 
abdomen,  thorax,  and  wings;  and  ends  in  a  total  obliteration 
of  all  the  beautiful  markings.  A  method  which  has  been 
sometimes  successfully  adopted  is  to  sprinkle  all  the  wings 
with  powdered  chalk,  and  holding  a  heated  iron  over  it;  the 
chalk  absorbs  the  grease,  and  may  then  be  blown  off  by  means 
of  a  pair  of  small  bellows.  Another  way  of  applying  the 
chalk,  and  perhaps  the  better  of  the  two,  is  to  throw  some 
powdered  chalk  on  the  face  of  a  heated  iron,  and  then  put  it 
into  a  piece  of  linen  cloth,  and  apply  it  to  the  body  of  the 
insect;  the  heat  of  the  iron  will  soften  the  grease,  and  the 
chalk  will  absorb  it. 

Another  method  is  to  hold  a  heated  iron  over  the  insects 
for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  to  wash  the  spotted  or  greasy 
places  with  ox-gall  and  water,  applied  with  a  camel-hair  pen- 
cil, and  afterwards  wash  it  with  pure  water,  and  dry  it  by  an 
application  of  blotting  paper,  and  when  perfectly  dry  imbue 
it  with  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  But  grease  sel- 
dom appears  where  the  contents  of  the  abdomen  have  been 
removed. 

Orders  Neuroptera,  Hymenoptera  and  Diptera.    The 

Dragon  Flies  (Libellulce*)  are  frequently  very  difficult  to  kill,  be- 
ing powerful  and  nervous  animals.  "When  caught  they  should 
be  transfixed  through  the  sides, and  it  sometimes  becomes  neces- 
sary to  put  braces  on  their  wings  to  prevent  them  from  flutter- 
ing while  in  the  hunting,  box.  They  may  also  be  killed  some- 
times by  placing  them  under  a  tumbler  and  suffocating  them. 
Some  entomologists  put  them  in  scalding  water  for  an  instant. 
The  contents  of  the  abdomen  should  always  be  removed 
from  Dragon  Flies,  otherwise  it  will  become  black  and  shin- 
ing through  the  skin,  and  destroy  the  beautiful  bands  with 
which  they  are  ornamented.  They  can  be  stuffed  with  cotton 
or  a  small  roll  of  paper  introduced.  If  these  precautions  are 


RELAXING  DRIED  INSECTS.  261 

attended  to,  the  insect  will  preserve  the  perfect  beauty  of  its 
living  state. 

The  other  species  of  these  orders  soon  die  after  being  trans- 
fixed. They  may  be  set  by  braces  and  pins,  as  represented  in 
Figs.  35  and  37. 

Some  of  the  Dipterous  insects  are  very  perishable  in  point 
of  color  after  death,  particularly  in  the  abdomen,  the  skin  of 
which  is  very  thin.  The  only  way  of  remedying  this  is  to 
pierce  the  abdomen,  and  after  taking  out  the  contents  the 
cavity  should  be  filled  with  a  powdered  paint  the  same  color 
as  the  living  subjects,  which  will  shine  through  and  give  it  all 
the  appearance  of  nature. 


METHOD    OF    RELAXING    DRIED 
INSECTS. 

Insects  frequently  get  stiffened  before  the  entomologist  has 
leisure  to  get  them  set;  and  it  usually  happens  that  those  sent 
home  from  foreign  countries  have  been  ill  set,  and  require  to 
be  placed  in  more  appropriate  attitudes  after  they  have  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  scientific  collector.  They  may  be  re- 
laxed and  made  as  flexible  as  recently  killed  specimens  by  the 
following  simple  process,  from  which  they  can  receive  no 
injury:  Pin  them  on  a  piece  of  cork,  and  place  the  cork  in  a 
large  basin  or  pan  of  tepid  water,  and  cover  the  top  tight  with 
a  damp  cloth,  taking  care  that  it  is  sufficiently  high  not  to 
injure  the  insects.  In  most  cases  a  few  hours  is  sufficient  to 
restore  them  to  their  original  flexibility,  so  that  they  may  be 
easily  put  in  their  proper  positions.  In  some  instances,  three 
or  four  days  are  necessary  to  relax  them  thoroughly,  so  as  to 
set  the  wings  without  the  risk  of  breaking  them;  no  force 
whatever  must  be  used  with  any  of  the  members.  When  set 
up,  after  being  relaxed,  they  must  be  treated  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  recent  specimens. 


262  TAXIDERMY. 

We  must  again  caution  the  entomologist  to  be  careful  that 
he  applies  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  all  his  sp«cies, 
otherwise  there  is  little  chance  of  their  continuing  long  with- 
out being  attacked  by  the  mite;  they  ought  to  be  frequently 
imbued. 

Mr.  Waterton,  who  has  studied  deeply  the  subject  of  pre- 
serving animal  substances,  and  applied  them  not  only  in  our 
own  country,  but  also  under  the  influence  of  a  tropical  climate, 
makes  the  following  observations  on  the  preservation  of  In- 
sects: "I  only  know  of  two  methods,"  says  he,   "to  guard 
preserved  insects  from  the  depredations  of  living  ones.     The 
first  is,  by  poisoning  the  atmosphere — the  second  is,  by  poison- 
ing the  prepared  specimens  themselves,  so  effectually  that  they 
are  no  longer  food  for  the  depredators.     But  there  are  some 
objections  to  both  these  modes;  a  poisoned  atmosphere  will 
evaporate  in  time  if  not  attended  to,  or  if  neglected  to  be  re- 
newed; and  there  is  great  difficulty  in  poisoning  some  speci- 
mens on  account  of  their  delicacy  and  minuteness.     If  you 
keep  spirits  of  turpentine  in  the  boxes  which  contain  your 
preserved  specimens,  I  am  of  opinion  that  those  upecimens  will 
be  safe  as  long  as  the  odor  of  the  turpentine  remains  in  the 
box,  for  it  is  said  to  be  the  most  pernicious  of  all  scents  to 
insects.     But  it  requires  attention  to  keep  up  an  atmosphere  of 
spirits  of  turpentine;  if  it  be  allowed  to  evaporate  entirely, 
then  there  is  a  clear  and  undisputed  path  open  to  the  inroads 
of  the  enemy;  he  will  take  advantage  of  your  absence  or 
neglect,  and  when  you  return  to  view  your  treasure  you  will 
find  it  in  ruins.     Spirits  of  turpentine  poured  into  a  common 
glass  inkstand,  in  which  there  is  a  piece  of  sponge,  and  placed 
in  a  corner  of  your  box,  will  create  a  poisoned  atmosphere  and 
kill  every  insect  there.     The  poisoning  of  your  specimens  by 
means  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  alcohol,  is  a  most  effective 
method.     As  soon  as  the  operation  is  properly  performed,  the 
depredating  insect  perceives  that  the  prepared  specimen  is  no 
longer  food  for  it,  and  will  forever  cease  to  attack  it;  but  then 


RELAXING  DRIED  INSECTS.  263 

every  part  must  have  received  the  poison,  otherwise  those 
parts  where  the  poison  has  not  reached  will  still  be  exposed  to 
the  enemy,  and  he  will  pass  unhurt  over  the  poisoned  parts 
till  he  arrives  at  that  part  of  your  specimen  which  is  still 
wholesome  food  for  him.  Now,  the  difficulty  lies  in  applying 
the  solution  to  very  minute  specimens  without  injuring  their 
appearance;  and  all  that  can  be  said  is,  to  recommend  un- 
wearied exertion,  which  is  sure  to  be  attended  with  great  skill, 
and  great  skill  will  insure  surprising  success." 

I  am  convinced  that  there  is  no  absolute  and  lasting  safety 
for  prepared  specimens  in  zoology  from  the  depredations  of 
insects,  except  by  poisoning  every  part  of  them  with  a  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  alcohol. 

Mr.  Waterton  is  of  opinion  that  tight  boxes  with  aromatic 
atmospheres  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  in  the  preservation 
of  insects.  He  says:  "  The  tight  boxes  and  aromatic  atmos- 
pheres will  certainly  do  a  great  deal,  but  they  are  liable  to 
fail,  for  this  obvious  reason,  viz. :  That  they  do  not  render  for- 
ever absolutely  baneful  and  abhorrent  to  the  depredator  that 
which  in  itself  is  nutritious  and  grateful  to  him.  In  an  evil 
hour,  through  neglect  in  keeping  up  a  poisoned  atmosphere, 
the  specimens  collected  by  industry  and  prepared  by  art,  and 
which  ought  to  live,  as  it  were,  for  the  admiration  of  future 
ages,  may  fall  a  prey  to  an  intruding  and  almost  invisible 
enemy,  so  that,  unless  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  in 
alcohol  is  applied,  you  are  never  perfectly  safe  from  surprise. 
I  have  tried  a  decoction  of  aloes,  wormwood  and  walnut  leaves, 
thinking  they  would  be  of  service  on  account  of  their  bitter- 
ness. The  trial  completely  failed." 

Many  entomologists  are  satisfied  with  possessing  the  insect 
in  its  perfect  or  image  condition.  But  it  is  exceedingly  in- 
teresting to  be  able  to  trace  these  through  their  different 
states  of  existence  from  the  egg  to  the  perfect  insect.  Besides, 
we  are  certain  to  produce  the  insects  in  the  highest  state  of 
preservation  when  we  breed  them  ourselves,  and  it  is  besides 


264  TAXIDERMY. 

very  interesting  to  have  the  eggs  of  the  different  species  as 
well  as  the  caterpillar  and  pupa. 

The  Eggs  of  Insects.  The  eggs  of  insects  preserve  their 
form  and  color  in  a  cabinet,  in  general,  without  much  trouble. 
Swammerdam  had  a  method  of  preserving  them  when  they 
appeared  to  be  giving  way.  He  made  a  perforation  within 
them  with  a  fine  needle,  pressed  out  their  contents,  after- 
wards inflated  them  with  a  glass  blow-pipe,  and  filled  them 
with  a  mixture  of  resin  and  oil  of  spike. 

The  Larvae,  or  Caterpillars.  The  easiest  way  of  de- 
stroying the  Caterpillar  is  by  immersion  in  spirits  of  wine. 
They  may  be  retained  for  a  long  time  in  this  spirit  without 
destroying  their  color. 

Mr.  William  Weatherhead  had  an  ingenious  mode  of  pre- 
serving larvse.  He  killed  the  caterpillar,  as  above  directed, 
and  having  made  a  small  puncture  in  the  tail,  gently  pressed 
out  the  contents  of  the  abdomen,  and  then  filled  the  skin  with 
fine  dry  sand,  and  brought  the  animal  to  its  natural  circum- 
ference. It  is  then  exposed  to  the  air  to  dry,  and  it  will  have 
become  quite  hard  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours,  after  which 
the  sand  may  be  shaken  out  at  the  small  aperture  and  the 
caterpillar  then  gummed  to  a  piece  of  card. 

Another  method  is,  after  the  entrails  are  squeezed  out,  to 
insert  into  the  aperture  a  glass  tube  which  has  been  drawn 
to  a  very  fine  point.  The  operator  must  blow  through  this 
pipe  while  he  keeps  turning  the  skin  slowly  round  over  a 
charcoal  fire ;  the  skin  soon  becomes  hardened,  and,  after 
being  anointed  with  oil  of  spike  and  resin,  it  may  be  placed 
in  a  cabinet  when  dry.  A  small  straw  or  pipe  of  grass  may 
be  substituted  for  the  glass  pipe.  Some  persons  inject  them 
with  colored  wax  after  they  are  dry. 

The  Pupa.  When  the  insects  have  escaped  from  their 
pupa  skin,  the  skin  usually  retains  the  shape  and  general  ap- 


BREEDING  INSECTS.  265 

pearance  it  did  while  it  contained  the  insect.  It  is  therefore 
ready  for  the  cabinet,  without  any  preparation  whatever. 
But  if  the  animal  has  not  quitted  its  envelope,  it  will  be 
necessary  either  to  drop  the  pupa  into  warm  water,  or  to  heat 
it  in  a  tin  case  before  the  fire ;  the  former  mode,  however,  is 
the  best,  and  least  liable  to  change  the  colors  of  the  pupa. 


METHOD    OF    BREEDING    INSECTS. 

Breeding  Cages.  These  must  be  made  of  oak,  or  other 
hard  wood,  as  pine  is  apt  to  kill  the  caterpillars  from  its 
strong  smell  of  turpentine.  The  best  form  for  these  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  32.  The  sides  and  front  are  covered  with 
gauze ;  a  is  a  small  square  box,  for  the  reception  of  a  phial 
of  water,  for  placing  the  stalks  of  plants  in,  on  which  it  is 
intended  the  caterpillars  are  to  feed.  The  most  convenient  size 
for  a  breeding  cage  is  eight  inches  in  breadth,  four  deep,  and 
one  foot  in  height.  It  is  not  proper  to  place  within  a  cage 
more  than  one  species  of  caterpillar,  as  many  of  them  prey 
upon  each  other.  Indeed,  animals  of  the  same  species  will 
devour  each  other  if  left  without  food.  The  caterpillars  of 
insects,  for  the  most  part,  will  only  eat  one  particular  kind 
of  food,  so  that  it  is  better  to  have  no  more  than  one  sort  in 
a  cage. 

There  must  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  cage  earth  to  the  depth 
of  two  inches;  this  should  be  mixed  with  some  fine  sand  and 
vegetable  earth,  if  possible,  to  prevent  it  from  drying.  The 
cages  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  cellar  or  damp  place,  because 
many  insects  change  into  the  pupa  condition  under  the  earth; 
so  that  it  would  require  to  be  somewhat  moist,  to  prevent  the 
destruction  of  the  animal.  The  shell  or  case  of  the  pupa  also 
becomes  hard,  if  the  earth  is  not  kept  moist;  and,  in  that 
event,  the  animal  will  not  have  sufficient  strength  to  break 
its  case  at  the  time  it  ought  to  emerge  from  its  confinement, 


266  TAXIDERMY. 

and  must  consequently  die,  which  but  too  frequently  happens 
from  mismanagement. 

Some  seasons  are  more  favorable  than  others  for  the  pro- 
duction of  caterpillars,  and  to  keep  each  kind  by  themselves 
would  require  an  immense  number  of  cages,  as  well  as  occupy 
much  time  in  changing  the  food,  and  paying  due  attention  to 
them.  To  obviate  this,  some  persons  have  large  breeding 
cages,  with  a  variety  of  food  in  them,  which  must  be  cleaned 
out  every  two  days,  and  fresh  leaves  given  to  the  caterpillars; 
as,  on  due  attention  to  feeding,  the  beauty  and  vigor  of  the 
coming  insects  will  much  depend. 

The  larvae  of  insects,  which  feed  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  may  be  bred  in  the  following  manner:  Let  any  box 
that  is  about  three  or  four  feet  square,  and  two  or  three  feet 
deep,  be  lined  internally  with  tin,  and  a  number  of  very  min- 
ute holes  be  bored  through  the  sides  and  bottom.  Put  into 
this  box  a  quantity  of  earth,  replete  with  such  vegetables  as 
the  caterpillars  subsist  on,  and  sink  it  into  a  bed  of  earth,  so 
that  the  surface  may  be  exposed  to  the  different  changes  of 
the  weather.  The  lid  should  be  covered  with  brass  or  iron  net- 
work, to  prevent  their  escape,  and  for  the  free  admission  of  air. 

The  young  entomologist  should  obtain  a  cabinet  of  about 
thirty  drawers,  arranged  in  two  tiers,  and  covered  in  with 
folding  doors.  There  is  a  great  convenience  in  this  size,  as 
the  cabinet  is  rendered  more  portable,  and  at  the  same  time 
admits  of  having  another  of  the  same  size,  being  placed  above 
the  top  of  it,  as  the  collection  increases,  without  injuring  the 
uniformity,  and  thus  the  drawers  may  be  augmented  to  any 
extent.  It  is  immaterial  whether  the  cabinet  is  made  of  ma- 
hogany or  oak;  sometimes  they  are  constructed  of  cedar,  but 
seldom  of  pine,  or  any  other  soft  wood.  Small  cells  must  be 
made  in  the  inside  of  the  fronts  for  camphor. 

Corking  of  Drawers.  The  simplest  way  to  get  the  cork 
is  to  purchase  it  of  a  cork-cutter,  ready  prepared,  but  it  will 


BREEDING  INSECTS.  267 

be  much  cheaper  for  the  entomologist  to  prepare  it  himself. 
In  this  case,  it  should  be  cut  into  strips  of  about  three  inches 
wide,  with  a  cork-cutter's  knife,  to  smooth  the  surface  and  to 
divide  it.  The  strips  should  be  fixed  in  a  rice,  and  cut  to  the 
thickness  required  with  a  fine  saw;  but  grease  must  not  be 
used  in  the  operation,  as  it  will  not  only  prevent  the  cork 
from  adhering  to  the  bottom  of  the  drawer,  but  will  also 
grease  the  paper  which  should  be  pasted  on  its  surface.  The 
black  surface  of  the  cork  should  be  rasped  down  to  a  smooth 
surface.  After  having  reduced  the  slips  to  about  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch  in  thickness,  the  darkest,  or  worst  side  of  the 
slip  should  be  glued  down  to  a  sheet  of  brown,  or  cartridge 
paper;  this  should  be  laid  on  a  deal  board,  about  three  feet  in 
length,  and  the  width  required  for  a  drawer  or  box;  a  few  fine 
nails,  or  brads,  must  be  driven  through  each  piece  of  cork  to 
keep  it  firm  and  in  its  place  until  the  glue  is  dried;  by  this 
means,  sheets  of  cork  may  be  formed  the  size  of  the  drawer. 
All  the  irregularities  are  filed  or  rasped  down  quite  to  a  level 
surface,  and  then  polished  smooth  with  pumice-stone.  The 
sheet,  thus  formed  and  finished,  is  glued  into  the  drawers. 
To  prevent  its  warping,  some  weights  must  be  equally  distrib- 
uted over  the  cork,  that  it  may  adhere  firmly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  drawer.  "When  quite  dry,  the  weights  are  removed, 
and  the  cork  covered  with  fine  white  paper,  but  not  very 
thick.  The  paper  is  allowed  to  be  quite  damp  with  the  paste 
before  it  is  placed  on  the  cork,  and  when  dry  it  will  become 
perfectly  tight. 

Insect  cabinets  should  be  kept  in  a  very  dry  situation,  other- 
wise the  antennas,  legs,  etc.,  will  become  quite  mouldy.  The 
same  evil  will  ensue  if  the  insect  is  not  perfectly  dry  before  it 
is  placed  in  the  cabinet.  -  Should  an  insect  be  covered  with 
mold  it  can  be  washed  off  with  a  camel's  hair  pencil,  dipped 
in  camphorated  spirits  of  wine;  in  which  case,  the  insect 
must  be  dried  in  a  warm  airy  situation,  before  being  placed 
in  the  cabinet. 


268  TAXIDERMY. 

There  should  always  be  plenty  of  camphor  kept  in  the 
drawers,  otherwise  there  is  great  danger  to  be  apprehended 
from  mites;  where  these  exist,  they  are  easily  discorered  by 
the  dust  which  is  under  the  insects  by  which  they  are  infested. 
In  which  case,  they  must  be  immediately  taken  out,  and 
rubbed  clean  with  a  fine  camel's  hair  pencil,  and  well  imbued 
with  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  and  then  placed  near 
a  fire,  taking  care,  however,  that  too  great  a  heat  is  not  ap- 
plied, as  it  will  utterly  destroy  the  specimen.  The  butterfly, 
sphinx  and  moth  tribes  are  extremely  liable  to  the  attack  of 
mites,  and  should,  therefore,  be  frequently  examined. 


SHELL  FISH,  TO  PRESERVE—  AND  THE 
ART  OF  POLISHING  SHELLS. 


FISH,  and  all  other  molluscous  animals,  can 
only  be  preserved  in  spirits.  The  same  observation 
applies  to  the  animals  which  inhabit  that  numerous 
tribe  called  Testaceous  Shells.  They  must  be  detached  from 
the  shells,  and  put  into  spirits,  while  the  shells  themselves 
must  be  preserved,  independent  of  the  animal. 

Shells  naturally  arrange  themselves  under  three  aistiuct 
heads  :  Marine,  Land,  and  Fluviatile,  or  Fresh  Water. 

Marine  shells  are  only  to  be  expected  perfect,  when  pro- 
cured in  a  living  state.  The  way  to  extract  the  animal  is  to 
pour  some  warm  water  on  it  ;  but,  if  too  hot,  it  is  liable  to 
crack  the  shells.  When  the  animals  are  dead,  they  can  easily 
be  pulled  out  with  any  hooked  instrument,  or  fork,  or  if  the 
animal  is  small,  by  a  common  pin.  This  applies  to  all  marine 
shells;  whether  univalve,  bivalve  or  tubular.  It  is  of  great 
consequence  to  preserve  the  ligament  of  bivalve  shells  entire, 
BO  that  the  valves  may  not  be  separated.  The  animals  of 


SHELL  FISH,  ETC.  269 

laud  and  fresh  water  shells  are  killed   by  the  same  means, 
only  that  the  water  requires  to  be  very  hot. 

Unless  the  shells  are  covered  with  extraneous  matter,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  clean  them.  Marine  shells  are,  however, 
very  liable  to  be  incrusted  with  other  marine  bodies,  partic- 
ularly with  serpula  and  balani,  etc.  These  must  be  started 
off  by  means  of  a  sharp  instrument;  an  engraving  tool  is 
well  adapted  for  this  purpose.  This  must  be  done  with  great 
caution,  in  species  which  have  spines,  and  other  excrescences, 
as  they  are  very  liable  to  be  broken.  Should  any  of  the  cal- 
careous matter  still  adhere,  this  must  be  removed,  by  apply- 
ing to  it  a  very  weak  mixture  of  muriatic  acid  and  water,  ap- 
plied with  the  point  of  a  quill,  and  then  plunged  into  water, 
and  allowed  to  remain  till  the  acid  is  quite  extracted.  But 
on  no  account  whatever  attempt  to  eradicate  these  parasitic 
bodies  by  means  of  acid,  or  acid  and  water  alone,  as  the 
chances  are  that  the  shell  will  be  completely  destroyed  by 
their  application.  We  have  seen  many  fine  and  valuable 
shells  destroyed  by  an  injudicious  application  of  acids — they 
should  never  be  used  when  it  can  possibly  be  avoided.  We 
have,  on  the  other  hand,  seen  shells  which  were  so  completely 
enveloped  in  calcareous  crust,  that  it  was  impossible  to  trace 
their  external  surface,  most  thoroughly  cleared  of  all  this, 
without  being  touched  at  all  by  acids,  the  whole  being  re- 
moved by  a  small  knife  or  other  sharp  instrument;  and  these, 
in  many  cases,  having  long  and  tender  spines  externally. 

Nothing  can  be  more  monstrous  than  the  application  of 
pumice-stone,  which  some  recommend,  for  polishing  shells ;  as 
is  also  the  use  of  tripoli,  rotten-stone,  and  emery.  Neither  do 
we  approve  the  application  of  varnishes,  as  such  shells  never 
have  their  natural  luster. 

If  a  shell  is  found  dead  upon  the  beach  it  is  probable  that 
it  will  have  undergone  a  certain  degree  of  decomposition,  that 
is,  it  will  have  parted  with  part  of  its  animal  matter,  and  con- 
sequently the  colors  will  have  faded  and  the  surface  present 


270  TAXIDERMY. 

a  chalky  appearance.  To  remove  this  take  a  small  proportion 
of  Florence  oil  and  apply  it  to  the  surface,  when  the  colors 
which  were  invisible  will  appear.  Wh^n  completely  saturated 
with  oil  let  the  shell  be  rubbed  dry  and  placed  in  a  cabinet. 
Oil  may  also  be  applied  after  acid  has  been  used,  and  it  will 
be  found  extremely  useful  when  applied  to  dry  the  epidermis, 
which  it  will  prevent  from  cracking  or  quitting  the  shell  en- 
tirely, which  it  frequently  does. 

Whether  marine  shells  are  procured  in  a  living  or  dead 
state,  a  very  necessary  precaution  is  to  immerse  them  in  pure 
tepid  water  after  the  animal  has  been  extracted,  and  allow 
them  to  continue  in  it  for  an  hour  or  two  so  as  completely  to 
extract  any  salt  or  acid  which  may  be  in  them. 

Fresh  water  shells  are  liable  to  a  calcareous  or  earthy  in- 
crustation, which  must  be  removed  by  immersing  them  in 
warm  water,  and  afterwards  scraping  and  brushing  them  with 
ft  nail  or  toothbrush.  Much  nicety  is  necessary  in  cleaning 
these,  as  their  great  thinness  renders  them,  in  general,  liable 
to  be  broken.  A  little  Florence  oil  will  improve  the  appear- 
ance of  the  epidermis  and  render  it  less  liable  to  crack. 

Land  shells  seldom  require  any  cleaning  except  washing 
in  water,  as  they  are  not  liable  to  incrustations  of  any  kind. 

When  shells  are  perforated  by  marine  animals,  or  otherwise 
broken,  if  the  specimen  is  rare,  it  is  desirable  to  remedy  these 
defects  as  far  as  possible ;  they  may  therefore  be  filled  up,  or 
pieces  added  to  them  with  the  cement,  which  may  be  colored 
when  dry  to  its  original  state. 

Of  Polishing  Shells.  Many  species  of  marine  and  fresh 
water  shells  are  composed  of  mother-of-pearl,  generally  cov- 
ered with  a  strong  epidermis.  When  it  is  wished  to  exhibit 
the  external  structure  of  shells,  the  epidermis  is  removed  and 
the  outer  testaceous  coatings  polished  down  till  the  pearl- 
aceous  structure  becomes  visible.  It  has  been  a  common 
practice  to  remove  the  strong  epidermis  of  shells  by  means  of 


SHELL   FISH,  ETC.  271 

strong  acids,  but  this  is  a  hazardous  and  tedious  mode  of 
operating.  The  best  method  is  to  put  the  shells  into  a  pan  of 
cold  water  with  a  quantity  of  quicklime  and  boil  it  for  two  to 
four  hours,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  epidermis.  The 
shells  afterwards  must  be  gradually  cooled,  and  some  strong 
acid  applied  to  the  epidermis,  when  it  will  easily  peel  off. 
Two  hours  are  sufficient  for  the  common  muscle  being  boiled. 
The  shells  are  afterwards  polished  with  rotten-stone  and  oil, 
put  on  a  piece  of  chamois  leather. 

The  epidermis  of  the  uno  margaritifera  is  so  thick  that  it 
requires  from  four  to  five  hours  boiling.  After  the  epidermis 
has  been  removed,  there  is  beneath  it  a  thick  layer  of  dull, 
calcareous  matter,  which  must  be  started  off  with  a  knife  or 
other  sharp  instrument ;  this  requires  great  labor,  but,  when 
accomplished,  a  fine  mother-of-pearl  is  exhibited  which  adds 
an  agreeable  variety  as  a  specimen. 

Various  turbos  and  trochuses  are  also  deprived  of  their 
epidermis  and  polished  with  files,  sand-paper,  pumice-stone, 
etc.,  till  the  pearly  appearance  is  obtained ;  but  all  these  modes 
are  invented  for  disfiguring  rather  than  improving  the  shells 
in  the  eye  of  the  naturalist,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to 
except  where  the  species  is  very  common,  in  which  case  it  is 
well  enough  to  do  so  with  one  or  two  specimens  to  show  the 
structure  of  the  shells. 

After  the  operation  of  polishing  and  washing  with  acids,  a 
little  Florence  oil  should  be  rubbed  over  to  bring  out  the 
color  a  and  destroy  the  influence  of  the  acid. 


272  TAXIDERMY. 


THE   CHASE  AND   MANNER  OP  COLLECTING   ANIMALS. 


QUADRUPEDS  AND  BIRDS. 

\ 

i'yiy^jg^r-^ 

jf  i^T  is  hardly  necessary  to  recommend  a  double-barrelled 
gun.  One  of  the  barrels  should  be  loaded  with  small 
shot  or  dross  of  lead  for  small  birds  and  the  other 
with  large  shot.  These  should  have  much  less  powder  than 
an  ordinary  charge,  so  as  not  to  tear  and  injure  the  animals. 
Paper,  cotton  or  flax  and  powdered  dry  earthen  ashes  should 
form  part  of  the  naturalist's  stores. 

When  a  bird  is  killed,  a  small  quantity  of  dry  dust  is  to  be 
put  on  the  wound.  For  this  purpose  the  feathers  must  be 
raised  with  a  pin,  or  a  gun-picker,  close  to  the  wound.  The 
bill  of  the  bird  should  have  a  small  quantity  of  cotton  or 
flax  introduced  into  it  to  prevent  the  blood  from  flowing  and 
spoiling  the  plumage.  The  feathers  must  be  all  adjusted, 
and  the  bird  then  placed  on  the  ground  to  allow  the  blood  to 
coagulate.  Every  specimen  should  be  placed  in  a  piece  of 
paper  of  the  form  of  a  hollow  cone,  like  the  thumb  bags  used 
by  grocers.  The  head  should  be  introduced  into  this,  the 
paper  should  then  be  closed  around  the  bird,  and  packed  in  a 
box  filled  with  moss,  dried  grass  or  leaves. 

Birds  taken  alive  in  nets  and  traps  are  to  be  preferred  to 
others  for  stuffing,  and  also  those  caught  by  birdlime,  which 
must  be  removed  by  spirits  of  wine. 

Birds  should  always  be  skinned  the  same  day  they  are 
killed,  or  next  day  at  farthest,  particularly  in  summer;  as  there 
is  a  danger  of  putrefaction  ensuing,  by  which  the  feathers 
will  fall  off.  However,  in  winter  there  is  no  danger  for  some 
days;  but  in  tropical  climates  they  must  be  prepared  soon 


QUADRUPEDS   AND    BIRDS.  273 

after  they  are  killed.  The  same  observations  apply  generally 
to  quadrupeds. 

Bats  and  owls  are  caught  during  the  day,  in  the  hollows  of 
aged  trees,  in  the  crevices  of  walls,  and  ruins  of  buildings. 
These  are  animals  which,  it  may  be  presumed,  are  still  little 
known  in  consequence  of  their  nocturnal  habits. 

Those  who  prepare  for  the  chase,  with  the  intention  of 
preserving  animals,  should  take  care  to  provide  themselves 
with  implements  necessary  for  fulfilling  the  objects  advan- 
tageously. The  articles  most  needed  are  one  or  two  pairs  of 
large  pincers,  scissors,  forceps,  scalpels,  knives,  needles, 
thread  and  a  small  hatchet,  as  well  as  one  or  more  canisters 
of  preserving  powder,  some  pots  of  arsenical  soap,  or  arsenical 
composition,  and  some  bottles  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  Cot- 
ton may  be  employed  in  stuffing  the  skins,  and  therefore  a 
considerable  quantity  should  always  be  taken  along  with  the 
naturalist.  In  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  where  this  cannot 
be  procured,  tow  must  be  employed,  or  old  ropes  teazed  down; 
and  where  even  this  cannot  be  found,  dried  grass  and  moss 
may  be  used.  M.  Le  Vaillant  used  a  species  of  dog-grass 
while  in  Africa,  which  is  very  abundant  in  that  country;  and 
it  answered  the  purpose  remarkably  well. 

It  being  supposed  that  a  traveler  has  an  ample  caravan,  pro- 
vided with  all  the  necessaries  which  we  have  pointed  out,  and 
having  killed  a  quadruped,  he  will  skin  it  immediately, 
according  to  the  method  which  we  have  pointed  out.  He  will 
then  sew  up  the  skin  after  receiving  a  partial  stuffing,  and 
having  been  anointed  with  the  arsenical  soap  or  composition. 
All  the  extremities  must  then  be  imbued  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, and  the  skin  should  be  placed  in  some  convenient 
place  to  dry,  so  that  it  may  have  the  advantage  of  complete 
exposure  to  the  air.  The  turpentine  must  be  again  applied  at 
the  end  of  three  or  four  days,  more  especially  around  the 
mouth  of  the  quadruped. 

It  will  be  of  the  utmost  advantage  to  remain  a  week  or  ten 


274  TAXIDERMY. 

days  at  one  place;  by  which  means  the  naturalist  will  have  had 
time  to  render  himself  somewhat  acquainted  with  the  animala 
which  localize  in  that  neighborhood.  And  as  some  species 
frequently  confine  themselves  to  a  very  limited  spot,  by  leav- 
ing the  place  too  hurriedly  he  is  apt  to  overlook  them. 

After  the  traveler  has  determined  on  leaving  his  canton- 
ment, he  must  see  that  all  the  objects  he  has  collected  are  in 
a  condition  to  be  removed.  He  must  examine  carefully  each 
specimen,  and  see  that  they  have  not  been  attacked  by  the 
destructive  insects,  so  abundant  in  warm  climates.  Should 
flies  have  deposited  their  eggs  in  the  lips  of  the  quadrupeds 
or  birds,  these  must  be  destroyed  by  spirits  of  turpentine. 
When  a  set  of  animals  or  birds  are  thoroughly  dry,  they  should 
be  packed  in  a  box  or  case,  which  has  been  well  joined. 

A  journal  ought  to  be  kept  detailing  all  the  circumstances 
connected  with  the  animals,  the  places  in  which  they  were 
killed,  and  the  color  of  their  eyes,  together  with  any  infor- 
mation that  can  be  procured  of  their  habits  from  the 
natives.  People  are  too  apt  to  forget  particulars  when 
engaged  in  such  varied  pursuits,  and  the  sooner  they  are 
committed  to  paper  the  better. 

When  the  traveler  arrives  in  Africa,  he  will  meet  with 
animals  of  the  largest  size,  such  as  the  elephant,  the  rhino- 
ceros, hippopotamus,  giraffe,  quagga,  urus,  bubulus,  con- 
doma,  as  well  as  large  antelope  and  deer.  He  will  unques- 
tionably find  some  difficulty  in  his  endeavors  to  bring  with 
him  the  skins  of  these  animals,  as  in  that  country  it  is  even 
troublesome,  in  many  cases,  to  transport  the  necessaries  of 
life.  But  the  ardor  of  the  zealous  naturalist  will  here  be 
increased  by  beholding  such  splendid  specimens  as  he  can 
never  meet  with  elsewhere.  All  his  energies  will  be  strength- 
ened and  every  sacrifice  made  to  enable  him  to  transport  the 
fruits  of  his  toils. 

We  need  only  to  recur  to  the  zeal  manifested  by  Le  Vaill- 
ant  in  his  travels,  and  the  rapturous  delight  experienced  by 


QUADRUPEDS   AND   BIRDS.  275 

him  when  he  first  beheld  and  killed  the  giraffe.  He  brought 
this  large  skin  from  Caffraria,  where  he  killed  the  animal,  a 
distance  of  two-hundred  leagues  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Should  the  traveler,  accidentally,  or  in  pursuit  of  natural 
objects,  find  himself  possessed  of  the  carcase  of  one  of  these 
large  and  fine  animals,  he  would  deeply  regret  not  being  able 
to  fetch  away  the  skin  from  want  of  a  knowledge  how  to 
separate  it  from  the  body.  "We  shall,  therefore,  suppose  that 
he  has  killed  an  animal  the  size  of  a  bull.  He  must  first 
make  an  incision  under  the  belly,  in  the  form  of  a  double 
cross.  The  central  line  must  reach  from  the  chin  to 
the  anus;  the  two  other  transverse  cuts  must  reach  from  one 
foot  to  the  other.  These  are  always  made  inside,  so  that  the 
seams  may  be  less  conspicuous  when  the  animal  is  mounted. 
When  the  skin  is  stuffed,  the  hoofs  are  detached  by  laying 
them  on  a  stone,  and  striking  them  with  a  hatchet  or  mallet. 
The  nails  or  hoofs  must  be  left  attached  to  the  skin.  After 
this,  the  skin  is  removed  from  the  feet,  legs,  and  thighs,  and 
treated  in  other  respects  as  pointed  out  in  skinning  other 
large  animals.  The  bones  of  the  head  must  be  preserved  if 
possible,  leaving  it  attached  at  the  muzzle  only.  All  the 
muscles  must  be  removed  from  the  head,  and  the  bones  ren- 
dered as  clean  as  possible. 

As  it  is  probable  that  an  animal  of  this  magnitude  has  been 
killed  at  a  great  distance  from  any  habitation,  there  will  not 
be  an  opportunity  of  macerating  the  hide  in  alum  and  water. 
The  skin  will  also  be  too  thick  for  the  arsenical  soap  to  pene- 
trate with  effect.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  next  best 
thing  to  preserve  it  is  to  take  the  ashes  of  a  wood  fire,  and 
rub  it  well  inside.  The  skin  should  then  be  stretched  along 
^ke  boughs  of  a  tree,  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  skull,  after  it 
nas  been  dried,  must  be  returned  into  the  skin,  and  the  lips,  ears, 
and  feet  imbued  plentifully  with  turpentine,  which  operation 
must  be  several  times  repeated  at  intervals.  Nothing  is  more 


276  TAXIDERMY. 

effectual  in  preventing  the  attacks  .of  insects  than  this  spirit, 
and  no  larvae  will  exist  in  places  which  it  has  touched. 

The  skin  will  be  sufficiently  dried  within  two  or  three  days, 
so  that  the  hair  may  be  turned  inwards.  If  some  common 
salt  can  be  procured,  a  solution  of  it  should  be  made,  and  the 
hair  rubbed  with  it.  Both  sides  of  the  skin  must  be  rubbed 
with  this  two  or  three  times,  at  intervals  of  a  day. 

When  sufficiently  dry,  the  skin  may  be  rolled  up  and  packed. 
The  hair  ought  to  be  inwards,  wi.th  a  layer  of  dried  grass  in- 
tervening, to  prevent  friction  during  conveyance.  The 
operation  of  rolling  up  the  skin  must  be  begun  at  the  head. 

If  the  journey  is  long,  the  skin  should  be  unrolled,  and 
placed  in  the  sun  for  a  few  hours,  and  the  places  liable  to  the 
attack  of  moths  should  be  again  rubbed  with  turpentine. 

When  a  skin  thus  prepared  has  reached  the  place  where  it  is 
to  be  put  up,  it  must  undergo  a  preparation  previous  to  its 
being  mounted.  In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  extended  along 
the  ground  with  the  hair  undermost,  so  that  it  may  acquire 
fresh  pliability,  and  those  parts  which  remain  stiff  must  be 
moistened  with  tepid  water.  The  skin  must  then  be  placed 
in  a  large  vessel  of  water  saturated  with  alum,  there  to  re- 
main eight  or  ten  days;  after  which,  it  must  be  extended  on 
half  rounded  pieces  of  wood,  and  thinned  with  a  sharp  knife, 
which  is  facilitated  by  the  projections  of  the  wood,  enabling 
the  operator  the  more  easily  to  cut  it,  while  it  is  gradually 
shifted,  till  the  whole  has  been  pretty  equally  thinned.  When 
this  operation  is  completed,  it  is  allowed  to  soak  in  water  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  that  saturated  with  the  alum.  Twenty- 
four  hours  will  be  sufficient. 

In  hunting  for  snakes,  great  caution  must  be  exercised,  as 
it  is  well  known  that  the  bite  of  some  of  these  proves  fatal 
within  a  quarttr  of  an  hour,  particularly  that  of  the  rattle- 
snake and  some  others.  Indeed,  it  would  be  more  prudent  to 
allow  the  natives  to  hunt  for  these  poisonous  reptiles,  as  they 
are  better  acquainted  with  their  haunts,  and  the  means  of 


QUADRUPEDS   AND    BIRDS.  277 

defense  to  be  employed  in  this  dangerous  pursuit.  They  are 
also  better  acquainted  with  those  which  are  poisonous.  We 
may,  however,  remark,  that  the  poisonous  snakes  have,  in 
general,  much  larger  heads  than  those  which  are  harmless,  and 
their  necks  are  also  narrow. 

Shells.  Shells,  on  account  of  the  elegance  and  variety  of 
their  forms,  and  beauty  of  their  colors,  are  objects  much 
sought  after,  not  only  by  naturalists  but  also  by  most  persons 
who  are  unacquainted  with  science.  There  is  no  species,  par- 
ticularly in  remote  climes,  which  does  not  deserve  to  be 
brought  home,  the  things  most  common  in  those  countries 
being  frequently  the  most  rare  in  ours.  Shells  are  found  on 
every  part  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Some  are  inhabitants 
of  the  land,  while  others  only  frequent  rivers,  lakes,  ponds, 
and  ditches;  and  another  and  more  numerous  class  live  in  the 
ocean.  Land-shells  are  spread  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  although  more  accessible,  are  perhaps  less  known 
than  those  which  inhabit  the  "  mighty  deep." 

Land-Shells,  for  the  most  part,  are  to  be  found  creeping 
abroad  either  in  the  evening  or  after  a  gentle  shower  of  rain. 
During  the  heat  of  the  day  they  retire  to  shaded  retreats,  un- 
der thick  bushes,  the  crevices  of  rocks,  the  hollows  of  decayed 
trees,  or  under  their  bark ;  beneath  stones,  amongst  moss,  or 
in  holes  in  the  ground.  A  little  experience  will  teach  the 
naturalist  readily  to  find  their  retreats. 

Fresh  Water  Shells  must  be  sought  for,  if  in  deep  lakes, 
with  a  dredge,  or  if  in  shallow  places,  with  a  tin  spoon  fixed 
on  the  end  of  a  stick.  This  is  made  of  a  circular  piece  of  tin 
four  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  beat  concave,  and  then 
perforated  with  numerous  small  holes,  not  exceeding  the 
sixteenth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  around  this  must  be 
soldered  a  perpendicular  rim  three-quarters  of  an  inch  broad, 
and  also  perforated  with  holes.  To  this  must  be  attached  a 
hollow  tubular  handle  three  inches  long,  for  the  insertion  of 


278  TAXIDEK.MY. 

a  walking-stick.  It  must  have  a  few  holes  towards  its  outer 
end  for  passing  a  string  through  to  tie  it  firmly  and  prevent 
it  being  lost.  With  this  spoon  the  collector  must  rake  along 
the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  ditches  or  ponds,  and  after  bring- 
ing a  quantity  to  the  surface,  he  must  wash  the  mud  entirely 
a  way  by  shaking  the  spoon  on  the  top  of  the  water,  and  it 
will  pass  through  the  holes  and  leave  the  shells.  The  sharp 
edge  of  the  spoon  is  also  useful  for  detaching  aquatic  shells 
from  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  of  water-plants. 

The  large  swan-muscle  (Anadonta  Cygnea),  and  other  ana- 
dons,  generally  lie  deep  in  the  mud,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
procured  by  dredging.  I  found  it  necessary  to  invent  a  net 
to  fish  for  these.  This  consisted  of  an  iron  triangle  of  twelve 
inches,  with  a  hollow  handle  fixed  on  its  base,  and  in  this  is 
inserted  a  pole  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  the  bottom.  It  is 
firmly  screwed  to  the  handle.  A  net  is  attached  to  the  tri- 
angle either  of  twine  or  hair-cloth.  The  point  of  the  triangle 
should  be  sharp  so  that  it  may  the  more  easily  penetrate  the 
mud,  and  it  is  drawn  through  it  in  situations  where  shells 
are  supposed  to  exist. 

Marine  Shells.  These  are  to  be  found  in  all  seas ;  some 
of  them  inhabit  rocks  on  the  shore  within  high-water  mark ; 
others  reside  in  deep  water,  and  can  only  be  taken  by  dredg- 
ing, or  by  the  use  of  a  kind  of  net  called  in  France  the  gan- 
gui,  and  an  instrument  called  the  rake  has  also  been  success- 
fully used. 

Different  species  of  sea-weed  are  frequently  covered  by 
minute  shells — weeds  should  always  be  carefully  examined. 
Many  of  the  smaller  and  microscopic  shells  are  found  at 
high- water  mark  among  the  fine  dross  and  drifted  fragments 
of  shells;  this  sand  should  be  brought  home  and  examined 
at  leisure.  To  facilitate  the  process  a  small  wire-cloth  sieve 
should  be  made  of  about  six  or  seven  inches  square  and  all 
the  sand  sifted  through  it  and  the  shells  left, 


INSECTS.  279 

Molluscous  Animals.  Many  species  of  worms  and  other 
soft  invertebrate  animals  are  to  be  caught  also  by  the  dredge. 
There  is  no  way  of  preserving  these  animals  except  by  put- 
ting them  in  spirits.  Animals  of  this  kind  are  still  very  im- 
perfectly known,  notwithstanding  the  researches  of  Lamarck, 
Poli,  and  other  celebrated  naturalists.  Every  opportunity 
should,  therefore,  be  embraced  of  bringing  them  home;  in- 
deed, we  are  still  little  acquainted  with  those  which  inhabit 
our  own  seas. 

When  animals  of  this  kind  are  procured  in  foreign  parts  a 
careful  noting  of  the  latitude  should  be  taken ;  and  it  should 
be  stated  whether  they  live  singly  or  are  congregated,  if  they 
are  phosphorescent,  and  if  they  were  taken  in  deep  water. 
And  as  these  animals  are  very  liable  to  lose  their  colors  by 
being  put  in  spirits,  a  careful  noting  of  these  should  be  taken 
whenever  they  are  caught,  as  the  colors  are  very  evanescent; 
or,  what  would  be  still  better,  a  drawing  of  the  animal  should 
be  made. 

Intestinal  Worms.  Whenever  we  have  killed  either  a 
quadruped,  bird,  or  fish,  we  should  carefully  examine  the 
stomach  and  intestinal  canal  of  the  animal  to  see  if  there  are 
any  worms;  indeed,  there  are  few  animals  without  them; 
they  must  also  be  preserved  in  spirits.  Besides  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  worms  are  also  found  in  the  livers  and  other 
parts  of  the  body;  also  in  the  back  of  Skates  and  various 
fishes. 

INSECTS. 

This  class  is  subject  to  infinite  variety,  according  to  climate 
and  soil.  The  entomologist,  or  the  mere  collector,  must  not 
confine  himself  to  those  whose  beauty  of  coloring  renders 
them  attractive,  but  collect  all  that  come  in  the  way.  Those 
species  which  have  wings,  and  fly  around  plants,  we  take  by 
means  of  gauze  nets,  and  also  those  which  swim  in  the  water. 


280  TAXIDERMY. 

Those  which  live  on  putrid  substances,  and  such  us  are  dis- 
agreeable to  the  touch,  are  seized  with  pincers;  they  are  first 
put  into  camphorated  spirits  to  render  them  clean.  Trees  are 
the  habitations  of  innumerable  insects;  many  of  them  skulk 
under  the  old  rotten  bark,  and  others  attach  themselves  to  the 
foliage.  A  cloth  should  be  spread  under  the  trees,  or  an  um- 
brella, and  the  branches  shaken  with  considerable  force,  when 
they  will  fall  down,  and  may  then  be  caught. 

Insects  are  killed  by  making  a  crow-quill  into  a  long  point 
and  dipping  it  into  prussic  acid;  an  incision  with  it  may  be 
made  immediately  below  the  head  of  the  insect  betwixt  the 
shoulders,  which  usually  produces  instant  death.  But  this 
acid  must  be  used  with  much  caution,  because  its  effects  are 
almost  as  instantaneous  and  fatal  in  the  human  subject  as  in 
the  lower  animals.  When  cork  cannot  be  had  for  lining  the 
bottoms  of  the  boxes,  a  layer  of  beeswax  may  be  used  in  its 
stead.  The  pin  should  be  deeply  sunk  in  this  substance,  as  it 
is  more  liable  to  loosen  than  when  in  cork. 

It  is  of  much  importance  to  procure  the  caterpillar  as  well 
as  the  insect,  and,  in  this  case,  some  of  the  leaves  on  which 
it  feeds  should  be  placed  in  a  box  beside  it,  so  that  it  may 
reach  maturity.  A  small  perforation  should  be  made  in  the 
box  for  the  admission  of  air. 

Every  kind  of  insect,  except  butterflies,  sphinges,  and 
moths,  may  be  preserved  in  bottles  of  spirits,  which  will  not 
injure  them;  when  they  are  taken  out  they  are  immediately 
placed  in  the  position  in  which  it  is  wished  to  preserve  them, 
and  they  are  then  allowed  to  dry.  Another  mode  of  preserv- 
ing coleopterous  insects,  such  as  beetles,  etc.,  is  to  put  them 
in  a  dry  box  amongst  fine  sand.  A  row  of  insects  is  placed 
in  a  layer  of  sand,  and  then  a  new  layer  of  about  an  inch  in 
depth  laid  on  the  top,  and  so  on  till  the  box  is  filled.  This 
mode  of  packing  will  not,  however,  do  with  soft  insects  and 
those  having  fine  wings. 

It  is  extremely  desirable  that  all  the  different  kinds  of 


BRITISH   INSECTS.  281 

Spiders  should  be  caught,  particularly  those  said  to  be  venom- 
ous; also  termites,  or  white  ants,  the  different  scolopendra, 
and  gaily  worms,  etc.  The  nests  of  spiders  and  other  in- 
sects should  also  be  sent  home;  in  short,  every  insect  which  is 
remarkable,  in  any  way,  either  for  its  history  or  properties. 

It  is  also  of  much  importance  to  bring  specimens  of  the 
plants  on  which  they  feed;  these  should  be  dried,  and  their 
localities  marked,  the  kind  of  soil  on  which  they  grow,  and 
the  situations,  whether  moist  or  dry,  should  be  noted. 


BRITISH   INSECTS. 

Woods,  Hedges,  and  Lanes.  By  far  the  greatest  por- 
tion of  insects  are  found  in  these  situations.  In  woods,  the 
entomologist  must  beat  "the  branches  of  the  trees  into  his 
folding  net,  and  must  select  for  this  purpose  the  open  paths, 
skirts,  etc.  The  trunks  of  trees,  gates,  and  timber  which  is 
cut  down,  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  a  great  many 
lepidopterous  and  coleopterous  insects  are  found  in  these 
situations,  and  in  no  other.  In  hedges  and  lanes,  many  of 
the  most  valuable  and  beautiful  insects  are  found,  as  also  in 
nettles  and  other  plants  which  grow  under  them;  these  should 
be  well  beat,  but  more  especially  when  the  white  thorn  blos- 
soms in  the  months  of  May  and  Juno.  Hedges  where  the 
roads  are  dusty  are  very  seldom  productive. 

Heaths  and  Commons.  Many  insects  are  peculiar  to 
these  situations  from  the  plants  which  grow  on  them,  as  well 
as  from  the  dung  of  cattle,  by  which  many  of  them  are  fre- 
quented, in  the  latter  of  which  many  thousands  of  insects 
may  be  found  in  a  single  day,  in  the  months  of  April  and 
May.  These  are  principally  of  the  Order  Coleoptera. 

Sand  Pits.  These  are  favorable  for  the  propagation  of 
Capris  lunarius,  Notoxus  monoccros,  £ixus  sulcirostris  and 


282  TAXIDERMY. 

other  rare  insects.     Minute  species  are  found  abundantly  at 
the  roots  of  grass. 

Meadows,  Marshes  and  Ponds.  In  meadows,  when 
the  ranunculi  or  buttercups  are  in  blossom,  many  Muscm  and 
und  dipterous  insects  generally  abound.  The  flag-rushes  are 
the  habitations  of  Cassida,  Donacina  and  others.  Drills  in 
marshes  should  be  examined,  as  many  species  of  insects  are 
found  on  long  grass.  The  larvae  of  various  lepidoptcra  and 
neuroptera  are  confined  to  these  situations,  more  especially 
if  hedges  and  trees  are  near  the  spot.  Ponds  are  rich  in 
microscopic  insects.  These  are  obtained  by  means  of  the  land- 
ing net,  which,  for  this  purpose,  need  not  be  so  long  as 
represented  in  Pig.  26,  and  should  be  made  of  pretty  thick  cot- 
ton cloth,  but  sufficiently  thin  to  allow  the  water  to  escape. 
The  mud,  which  is  brought  up  from  the  bottom  of  ponds  and 
ditches,  should  be  examined,  and  what  small  insects  are 
found  may  be  put  in  a  small  phial  filled  with  water,  which 
will  not  only  clean  them  but  keep  them  alive;  and  in  many 
instances  the  naturalist  will  be  surprised,  upon  the  examina- 
tion of  these,  the  most  wonderful  productions  of  nature. 

Moss,  Decayed  Trees,  Roots  of  Grass,  Etc.  Many 
insects  will  be  found  in  moss  and  under  it;  the  roots  and 
wood  of  decayed  trees  afford  nourishment  and  a  habitation  to 
a  number  of  insects;  many  of  the  larvas  of  Lepidoptera  pene- 
trate the  trunks  of  trees  in  all  directions;  most  of  the  ceram- 
byces  feed  on  wood,  as  well  as  some  species  of  Carabidce  Ela- 
teridm,  etc.  In  seeking  for  these  it  is  necessary  to  use  the 
digger.  It  is  sometimes  requisite  to  dig  six  or  seven  inches 
into  the  wood  before  they  are  found. 

Banks  of  Ponds  and  Roots  of  Grass.  These  are  a 
never-failing  source  of  collecting,  which  may  be  followed  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  general  with  great  success; 


BRITISH  INSECTS.  283 

those  banks  are  to  be  preferred  which  have  the  morning  or 
noon-day  sun. 

Banks  of  Rivers,  Sandy  Sea  Shore,  Etc.  These  situa- 
tions afford  a  great  variety  of  Coleoptera,  Crustacce,  etc.  The 
dead  carcases  of  animals  thrown  on  the  shore  should  be  exam- 
ined, as  they  are  the  receptacles  and  food  of  Silphiodce, 
Staphilinidce,  etc.  May  and  June  are  the  best  seasons  for 
collecting  these  insects. 

Dead  Animals  and  Dried  Bones  should  be  constantly 
examined,  for  these  are  the  natural  habitats  of  several  insects. 
It  is  not  uncommon  for  country  people  to  hang  dead  moles  on 
bushes;  under  these  the  entomologist  should  place  his  net, 
and  shake  the  boughs  on  which  they  are  hung,  as  many  of  the 
coleoptera  generally  inhabit  these. 

Fungi  and  Flowers.  These  are  the  constant  abode  of 
insects,  and  many  curious  species  will  be  found  on  them. 

It  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  insects  are  only  to  be  found  in 
summer,  as  they  are  to  be  met  with,  either  in  a  living  or  pupa 
state,  at  all  seasons.  Dried  moss,  beneath  the  bark  of  trees 
and  under  stones  are  extremely  likely  places  to  find  insects  in 
winter;  and  even  then  the  entomologist  is  more  likely  to  pro- 
cure some  of  the  rare  species  than  in  summer,  as  these  are 
ranging  in  search  of  food  and  in  situations  hidden  from  view. 

At  this  season,  if  the  weather  is  mild,  the  pupas  of  Lepidop- 
tera  will  be  found  at  the  roots  of  trees,  more  especially  those 
of  the  elm,  oak,  lime,  etc.,  or  beneath  the  underwood,  close 
to  the  trees,  and  these  frequently  at  the  depth  of  some  inches 
under  the  ground. 

In  the  months  of  June,  July  and  August  the  woods  are  the 
best  places  to  search  for  insects.  Most  of  the  butterflies  are 
taken  in  those  months,  flying  about  in  the  day-time  only. 
Moths  are  either  found  at  break  of  day  or  at  twilight  in  the 
evening.  The  following  method  of  taking  moths  is  pointed 


284  TAXIDERMY. 

out  by  Haworth,  in  speaking  of  the  Oak  Moth  (Bombyx 
Quercus}.  "It  is  a  frequent  practice  with  the  London  Aure- 
lians,"  says  lie,  "  when  they  breed  a  female  of  this  and  some 
other  day-flying  species,  to  take  her,  whilst  yet  a  virgin,  into 
the  vicinity  of  woods,  where,  if  the  weather  is  favorable,  she 
never  fails  to  attract  a  numerous  train  of  males,  whose  only 
business  seems  to  be  an  incessant,  rapid  and  undulating 
flight  in  search  of  their  unimpregnated  females,  one  of  which  is 
no  sooner  perceived  than  they  become  so  much  enamored  of 
their  fair  and  chaste  relation  as  absolutely  to  lose  all  kinds  of 
fear  for  their  own  personal  safety,  which,  at  other  times,  is 
effectually  secured  by  the  reiterated  evolutions  of  their  strong 
and  rapid  wings.  So  fearless,  indeed,  have  I  beheld  them  on 
these  occasions  as  to  climb  up  and  down  the  sides  of  a  cage 
which  contained  the  dear  object  of  their  eager  pursuit  in  exactly 
the  same  hurrying  manner  as  honeybees,  which  have  lost 
themselves,  climb  up  and  down  the  glasses  of  a  window/' 


FOR  VARIOUS  ARTICLES   USED   IN  THE  PRESERVATION 
AND  SETTING  UP  OF  ANIMALS. 


SOLUTION   OF  CORROSIVE  SUBLI- 
MATE. 

Mr.  Watertori1*  Method. 

JUT  a  good  large  teaspoonful  of  well-pounded  corrosive 
sublimate  into  a  wine  bottle  full  of  alcohol  (spirits 
of  wine).  Let  it  stand  over  night,  and  the  next 
morning  draw  it  off  into  a  clean  bottle.  When  the  solution 
is  applied  to  black  substances,  and  little  white  particles  are 
perceived  on  them,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  it  weaker,  by 
the  addition  of  some  alcohol. 

A  black  feather  dipped  in  the  solution,  and  then  dried,  wil) 
be  a  good  test  of  the  state  of  the  solution;  if  it  be  too  strong 
it  will  leave  a  whiteness  upon  the  feather. 

ARSENICAL   SOAP. 
Invented  by  Becceur,  ApotTiecary,  Metz. 

Arsenic,  in  powder,       -  2  pounds. 

Camphor,  5  ounces. 

White  Soap,  -      2  pounds. 
Salt  of  Tartar,  12  ounces. 

Powdered  Lime,     ...  -      4  ounces. 

285 


286  TAXIDERMY. 

The  soap  must  be  cut  in  small  and  very  thin  slices,  put  into 
a  crucible  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  held  over .a  gentle 
fire,  and  frequently  stirred  with  a  wooden  spatula,  or  a  piece 
of  wood  of  any  kind.  When  it  is  properly  melted,  the  pow- 
dered lime  and  salt  of  tartar  must  then  be  added  and  thor- 
oughly mixed.  It  must  now  be  taken  off  the  fire,  the  arsenic 
added  gently,  and  stirred.  The  camphor  must  be  reduced 
into  a  powder  by  beating  it  in  a  mortar,  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  spirits  of  w:ne.  The  camphor  must  then  be  added 
and  the  composition  well  mixed  with  a  spatula  while  off  the 
fire.  It  may  be  again  placed  on  the  fire  to  assist  in  mak- 
ing the  ingredients  incorporate  properly,  but  not  much 
heated,  as  the  camphor  will  very  rapidly  escape.  It  may 
now  be  poured  into  glazed  earthen  pots  and  allowed  to  cool, 
after  which  a  piece  of  paper  should  be  placed  over  the  top, 
and  afterward  some  sheep  leather,  and  then  set  aside  for 
use.  The  composition  is  about  the  thickness  of  ordinary 
flour  paste. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  soap,  put  as  much  as 
will  answer  the  purpose  into  a  preserve  pot  and  add  to  it 
about  an  equal  proportion  of  water.  This  is  applied  to  the 
skin  or  feathers  with  a  bristle  brush. 

N.  B.  It  should  be  kept  as  close  as  possible  and  used 
with  caution,  as  it  is  a  deadly  poison. 

The  above  is  the  recipe  made  use  of  at  he  Jardin  des 
Plantcs,  Puris. 

Mr.  Laurent's  Recipe. 

A  distinguished  French  naturalist,  Laurent,  recommendi 
the  following  composition,  after  ten  years'  experience,  for 
preserving  the  skins  of  stuffed  animals.  He  observes  at  the 
same  time  that  it  penetrates  them  with  greater  readiness, 
and  preserves  them  much  better  than  any  preparation  which 
has  hitherto  been  in  use. 

"Arseniate  of  Potash,     -  -    2  drachms. 

Sulphate  of  Alumine,  2  drachmi. 


RECIPES.  287 

Powdered  Camphor,     -  -2  drachms. 

White  Soap,  powdered,     -  -£  ounce. 

Spirits  of  Wine,   -  -     6  ounces. 

Essence  of  Thyme,    -  3  drops. 

The  arseniate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  alumine,  and  soap,  are 
to  be  placed  in  a  phial  with  a  large  mouth,  and  the  spirits 
of  wine  to  be  poured  on  them  at  a  heat  of  twenty- five  de- 
grees, and  they  will  be  perfectly  combined  in  twenty-four 
hours.  The  essence  of  thyme  is  then  added,  when  the  phial 
must  be  carefully  corked.  This  composition  is  to  be  shaken 
together  before  it  is  made  use  of,  and  it  must  be  spread 
over  the  skin  of  the  animal  or  bird  with  a  brush. 

SOLUTION   OF   PEARL-ASHES. 

Two  ounces  of  pearl-ash  to  one  gallon  of  water. 

ANNEALED   IRON  WIRE. 

Take  common  iron  wire,  make  it  red  hot,  and  suffer  it  to 
cool  gradually ;  this  renders  it  soft  and  pliable,  so  that  it 
may  be  easily  bent  in  any  direction. 

CEMENT. 

Fine  Whitening,     -  -    2  ounces. 

Gum-Arabic,  2  ounces. 

Finest  Flour,  -    -g-  ounce. 

Ox-Gall,  a  teaspoonful. 

The  whole  to  be  dissolved,  and  mixed  well  with  water  into 
thick  paste. 

This  is  well  adapted  for  attaching  different  objects,  and 
especially  for  fixing  shells  to  pasteboard,  etc. 

GUM   PASTE. 

White  Sugar  Candy,  -    2  ounces. 

Common  Gum-Arabic,  4  ounces. 

Let  these  be  melted  in  a  pot  of  hot  water,  and  then  strained 
through  a  linen  or  horse-hair  sieve.  When  properly  dis- 


288  TAXIDERMY. 

solved,  add  to  it  two  tablespoonsfuls  of  starch,  or  hair-pon- 
der, and  mix  the  whole  well  together.  This  paste  may  be 
used  for  many  purposes,  and  it  never  spoils.  It  may  be 
dried,  and  by  pouring  a  little  warm  water  on  it,  it  will  soon 
be  ready  for  use.  If  it  is  wished  to  be  all  melted,  and  hur- 
riedly, the  pot  containing  it  should  be  placed  in  warm  water, 
or  sand. 

FLOUR   PASTE. 

Make  flour  paste  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  add  to  it  a  small 
portion  of  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  or  powdered 
corrosive  sublimate.  This  will  prevent  the  attack  of  mites, 
to  which  paste  is  very  liable  when  dried.  This  paste  may -be 
dried  into  a  cake,  and  moistened  when  required. 

SOLUTION   OF   GUM-ARABIC. 

The  solution  of  gum-arabic  is  made  by  simply  adding  water 
to  it.  When  used  as  a  varnish,  or  for  attaching  objects,  it  is 
extremely  apt  to  get  too  brittle,  in  very  warm  weather,  and 
to  crack,  or  split  off  in  scales;  to  prevent  this,  a  quarter  of 
an  ounce  of  white  or  brown  sugar-candy  must  be  added  to 
two  ounces  of  gum-arabic, 

PAPER   PASTE,  GUMMED. 

Take  a  coffe-pot,  filled  with  water,  and  add  to  it  a  quantity 
of  paper,  which  has  been  slightly  sized,  like  that  used  for 
printing  engravings.  Let  it  boil  three  hours,  and,  when  the 
water  has  evaporated,  boil  it  again  for  a  similar  length  of 
time.  Take  out  the  paper,  and  squeeze  it  well  in  a  colander, 
and  then  pound  it  in  a  mortar,  until  it  is  reduced  to  a  very 
fine  paste.  It  must  then  be  dried.  When  it  is  required  for 
use,  add  to  it  some  of  the  solution  of  gum-arabic,  and  keep 
it  in  a  pot  for  use. 

POLLEN   POWDER. 

The  paper  made  as  above  directed,  when  well  dried,  is 
pounded  in  a  mortar  till  it  becomes  a  very  fine  powder;  it  is 


RECIPES.  289 

then  put  into  a  tin  pepper-box,  and  when  any  of  the  parts  of 
parrot's  bills,  etc.,  are  wished  to  have  this  powdered  appear- 
ance, a  little  of  the  solution  of  gum-arabic  is  washed  over 
the  part  with  a  camel-hair  pencil,  and  the  powder  dusted  on 
it  and  allowed  to  dry. 

RED  VARNISH. 

Take  a  stick  of  red  sealing  wax,  beat  it  down  with  a  ham- 
mer, and  then  put  it  into  a  phial,  with  an  ounce  of  strong 
spirits  of  wine,  which  will  dissolve  it  within  four  or  five  hours. 
It  may  be  applied  to  any  part  with  a  camel-hair  pencil,  and 
it  will  dry  in  less  than  five  minutes. 

Black,  yellow,  and  green,  or  indeed  any  color  of  varnish, 
may  be  made  from  sealing-wax  of  these  various  colors. 

To  those  unacquainted  with  the  combination  of  colors,  we 
may  mention,  that  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow  produces 
green;  pink  and  blue  makes  purple;  red  and  yellow,  orange; 
black,  red,  and  yellow,  brown;  black  and  blue,  gray.  These 
may  be  varied,  in  an  infinity  of  shades,  by  either  color  pre- 
dominating, and  by  the  addition  of  other  colors. 

LUTING   FOR   RENDERING   BOTTLES   AIR  TIGHT. 

Common  Resin. 

Red  Ochre  reduced  into  a  fine  powder. 

Yellow  Wax. 

Oil  of  Turpentine. 

These  must  be  melted  over  a  fire  in  the  following  manner, 
and  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  made  should  be  capable  of  hold- 
ing three  times  the  quantity  required,  to  allow  room  for  boil- 
ing up.  An  earthenware  pipkin  with  a  handle  is  the  best 
thing  for  the  purpose,  and  a  lid  must  be  made  of  tin  to  fit  it. 
The  luting  will  be  rendered  more  or  less  brittle,  or  elastic,  as 
the  red  ochre  prevails: 

The  wax  is  first  melted,  and  then  the  resin;  the  ochre  is 
then  added  in  small  quantities,  and  stirred  quickly  with  a 
spatula  each  time.  When  all  the  ochre  has  been  added,  it 


290  TAXIDERMY. 

must  be  allowed  to  boil  six  or  eight  minutes;  the  turpentine 
is  then  added,  and  briskly  stirred  with  the  spatula,  and  con- 
tinue to  boil  it.  There  is  considerable  risk  of  the  mixture 
taking  fire,  and  should  it  do  so,  the  lid  must  immediately  be 
put  on  the  vessel  to  extinguish  it. 

To  ascertain  the  consistence  of  the  luting,  a  little  must  be, 
from  time  to  time,  dropped  on  a  cool  plate,  or  flat  piece  of 
iron.  If  it  is  too  soft,  more  of  the  ochre  must  be  added  to  it; 
and  if  too  hard,  additional  wax  and  turpentine. 

TOW   AND    FLAX  SLIVERS. 

These  are  fillets  of  prepared  tow  and  flax,  of  from  one  to 
three  inches  in  breadth.  They  are  extremely  uniform  in 
their  thickness,  being  made  to  weight,  and  can  easily  be 
procured  from  any  flax-spinning  mill,  at  a  moderate  price 
per  pound  weight. 

METHOD   OF   MAKING   ENAMEL-EYES   FOR   ANIMALS. 

Much  of  the  character  and  expression  of  animals  depends 
upon  their  eyes;  it  will,  therefore,  be  evident  that  great  atten- 
tion is  necessary  in  the  artificial  imitation  of  these. 

In  this  operation,  a  pipe  of  baked  earth  is  used,  or  a  tube 
of  glass  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  at  the  end  of  which  a 
little  white  enamel  is  placed.  This  is  placed  to  the  flame,  so 
that  it  may  be  blown.  This  enamel  forms  a  globe,  whose 
dimensions  depend  upon  the  quantity  of  air  introduced. 
When  this  globe  is  of  the  size  wished,  we  place  in  the  middle, 
and  prependicularly  to  the  point  of  the  pipe,  the  quantity  of 
enamel  necessary  to  form  the  enamel.  The  second  enamel  is 
then  incorporated  with  the  first  by  presenting  it  to  the  flame, 
while  attention  is  paid  to  turn  the  pipe  gradually  round,  so 
that  the  enamel  may  diffuse  itself  equally,  and  the  iris  be  ex- 
actly circular.  If  it  is  required  that  this  iris  should  be  of 
various  colors,  like  that  of  man,  for  example,  small  filaments 
of  enamel  are  distributed  in  diverging  rays  of  the  suitable 


RECIPES.  291 

color;  the  eye  is  then  placed  in  the  flame,  until  these  have  in- 
corporated with  the  iris,  after  which  the  pupil  is  placed  as 
before  directed,  and  the  glass  applied  as  before  directed. 

During  this  operation,  the  globe  is  almost  certain  of  sink- 
ing down,  partly  from  the  air  escaping,  partly  from  the  heat, 
and  from  the  pressure  which  is  used  in  applying  the  different 
substances;  air  must  again  be  supplied  from  time  to  time  to 
prevent  it  from  losing  its  form.  This  becomes  particularly 
necessary  when  glass  is  applied,  and  when  it  is  extended  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  iris. 

The  eye  having  got  its  form  and  size,  the  pipe  is  taken 
away.  To  effect  this,  after  the  air  has  been  introduced,  the 
entrance  of  the  pipe  is  stopped  with  the  finger,  and  the  back 
part  of  the  eye  exposed  to  the  flame;  when  the  air  contained 
in  the  globe,  and  rarefied  by  the  pipe,  comes  through  at  the 
place  where  the  flame  has  most  action.  This  opening  is  pro- 
longed by  turning  the  point  of  the  flat  pincers,  or  an  iron- 
wire,  all  round  the  pipe;  one  point  only  is  left  by  which  the 
eye  remains  fixed.  It  is  then  warmed  equally  all  over,  after 
which  it  is  exposed  to  a  gentle  heat,  and  when  it  again  cools, 
it  is  separated  from  the  pipe. 

ARTICLES   REQUIRED  FOR    SKINNING    AND  MOUNTING  QUAD- 
RUPEDS, BIRDS,  REPTILES,  AND  FISHES. 

1.  A  box  containing  scalpels  of  different  shapes;  a  pair  of 

scissors  with  pointed  blades,  and  two  or  three  pointed 
forceps  of  different  sizes,  the  extremities  of  one  of 
which  ought  to  be  indented. 

2.  Two  flat  pincers,  or  pliers,  large  and  small. 

3.  A  round  pincer  for  turning  wire. 

4.  A  cutting  pincer  for  wire. 

5.  A  hammer. 

6.  Two  files. 

7.  A  triangular. 

8.  Points  for  perforating  holes. 


292  TAXIDERMY. 

9.  Asaddler's  awl  for  drilling  holes;  also  various  shoemakers' 
awls,  which  will  be  found  useful. 

10.  Brushes  of  different  sizes  for  putting  the  preservative  on 

the  animals'  and  birds'  skins,  and  for  smoothing  and 
dusting  the  feathers. 

11.  An  assortment  of  iron -wire  of  all  sizes. 

12.  Flax  and  tow,  coarse  cotton.     When  these  cannot  be 

had,  untwisted  ropes  or  cords.  A  quantity  of  tow  and 
flax  slivers  for  twisting  round  the  leg-bones  of  small 
quadrupeds  and  birds. 

13.  Some  small  hardwood  meshes  for  assisting  in  stuffing. 

Instructions  to  Travelers.  The  best  means  of  procur- 
ing living  animals,  is  by  applying  to  the  natives  of  the  differ- 
ent countries,  who  are  accustomed  to  their  habits,  and  the 
situation  in  which  they  are  likely  to  be  found,  and  to  take 
them  in  traps  and  snares.  They  are  also  more  likely  to  be 
able  to  find  their  retreats,  so  that  they  may  take  these  animals 
in  a  young  state,  and  also  birds  in  their  nests. 

By  thus  securing  animals  while  young,  they  are  much  more 
likely  to  reach  home  in  a  living  state.  Every  exertion  should 
be  used  to  render  them  familiar,  when,  being  habituated  to 
the  appearance  of  man,  they  will  be  more  able  to  resist  the 
effects  of  a  tedious  sea  voyage  than  those  which  have  been 
taken  when  wild,  and  are  under  a  continued  degree  of  excite- 
ment. Every  care  should  be  taken  to  soothe  and  caress 
them;  and  there  is  no  animal  whose  manners  cannot  be 
softened  by  gentle  treatment.  During  fine  weather,  they 
should  be  allowed  to  take  exercise  on  the  deck,  as  nothing  is 
so  injurious  to  their  health  and  growth  as  being  long  pent  up 
in  a  small  cage.  While  thus  confined,  it  will  be  obvious  that 
they  require  a  much  smaller  portion  of  food  then  when  they 
can  have  sufficient  room  to  exercise  themselves.  Many  of 
these  animals  are  lost  from  over-feeding.  Their  diet  should 


RECIPES.  293 

be  given  with  great  regularity,  but  always  in  such  quantity  as 
they  can  easily  digest. 

Next  to  food,  cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and 
\f  this  requires  too  much  of  the  attention  of  those  who  are 
bringing  them  home,  it  will  be  easy  to  procure  the  assistance 
of  some  of  the  crow.  And  unless  this  is  strictly  attended  to, 
there  is  little  chance  of  preserving  their  health. 

When  animals'  skins  are  imported,  it  is  also  necessary  to 
bring  the  head  and  feet.  Those  of  the  mammalia,  which  can 
be  put  into  a  barrel  or  bottle,  should  be  preserved  entire  in 
spirits. 

In  the  event  of  not  being  able  to  transport  the  carcase,  th« 
next  best  thing  is  to  bring  the  skeleton  along  with  the  skin. 
It  will  not  be  necessary  to  mount  these.  All  that  is  required 
is  to  boil  the  bones,  take  off  the  flesh,  and  dry  them.  After- 
wards all  the  bones  belonging  to  the  same  skeleton  should  be 
put  in  a  bag  by  themselves,  taking  care  to  fill  up  the  bag  with 
dried  moss,  or  any  other  substance  which  will  prevent 
friction.  The  more  effectually  to  secure  this,  the  small  and 
tender  bones  ought  to  be  wrapped  in  paper.  It  is  of  the  ut- 
most consequence  that  not  a  bone  should  be  lost. 

In  shooting  birds,  it  is  of  much  importance  not  to  use  the 
shot  too  large  ;  indeed,  it  ought  to  be  proportioned,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  to  the  size  of  the  bird  to  be  shot  at.  When  the 
bird  is  killed,  the  blood  must  be  carefully  wiped  away,  and  a 
little  cotton  must  be  put  into  the  bill  to  prevent  the  blood 
flowing  from  it  to  injure  the  feathers.  The  wound  should 
also  be  stuffed  with  cotton. 

Birds  should  be  skinned  as  soon  as  possible,  as  the  feathers 
are  apt  to  fall  off  if  kept  too  long.  The  os  coccygis  must  be 
kept  attached  to  the  skin.  If  several  individuals  of  the  same 
species  be  killed,  one  should,  if  possible,  be  preserved  entire 
in  spirits,  with  the  whole  muscles  of  the  body.  If  the  bird 
has  a  fleshy  crest,  it  ought  to  be  preserved  in  spirits. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  procure  the  male,  female 


294  TAXIDERMY. 

and  young,  and  these  at  different  ages  besides,  as  many 
species  are  subject  to  great  variety,  in  their  progress  from  the 
young  to  the  adult  state.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case 
with  Eagles  and  Hawks,  many  of  which  have  been  described 
as  different  species  in  their  immature  state.  The  eggs  and 
nest  should  also  be  procured. 

Reptiles.  The  chief  thing  to  be  attended  to  in  skinning 
reptiles  is  not  to  injure  the  scales ;  and  in  the  lizard  kind, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  break  the  tail.  But  for  all  the 
smaller  and  middle  sized  species,  the  best  mode  is  to  preserve 
them  in  spirits ;  and  of  the  larger  kind  which  are  skinned, 
the  skeletons  ought  to  be  kept.  The  flesh  should  be  taken 
away  with  knives  and  scalpels  as  well  as  possible,  and  the 
bones  thoroughly  dried,  and  packed  in  a  box  with  cotton  or 
grass,  and  they  can  be  articulated  after  they  are  brought 
home.  When  the  skeletons  are  too  large,  they  may  be  sepa- 
rated into  convenient  parts  for  packing. 


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